university of washington press,社会科学研究论文-methodology部分

本文目录一览：

• 1、圣路易斯华盛顿大学留学经验
• 2、张小军的学术成果
• 3、社会科学研究论文-methodology部分
• 4、参考文献英文题目
• 5、有谁知道里根在中国人民大会堂的演讲“the future is ours to build”的英文和中文译文？
• 6、美国大致历史
• 7、参考文献
• 8、比尔盖茨的英文生平简介
• 9、求下面几个人生平，在社会保障贡献方面的英文资料
• 10、吕永龙的代表论著

圣路易斯华盛顿大学留学经验

　　在圣路易斯华盛顿大学留学是一种怎样的体验?的我在征集了众多校友的说法之后整理出这篇圣路易斯华盛顿大学留学经验，希望可以帮助到您!

　　 1.Academics: People are SMART and care about what they do. It's impossible to do all the reading, but you'll need to do lots of work you don't need to turn in!
　　 学术： 这里的人都很聪明，很用心做自己的事情。把所有的东西都读一遍几乎是不可能的，但是，即使是不用上交的工作，你也要做很多功课，了解足够多的信息。
　　 2.Academics: Our school has so many academic resources for the students, and most everyone is willing to help you out if you are struggling in a class--for pre-meds, this tends to be a constant state of being. The professors are all so willing to talk to you and help you understand material. Registration is pretty stream-lined, but sometimes getting into the classes you want, or required classes is tough because they are in high demand and low supply. There are so many places on campus to study: study rooms in the dorms, the 5 floor library, dining areas, even outside if it's nice.
　　 学术： 学校为学生准备了非常多的可利用的学术资源，如果你在课上有困难的话，几乎每个人都愿意给你提供帮助，这渐渐地成了一种常见的现象。教授们也很愿意和你交流，帮你进一步理解知识。这里的登记注册手续已经流程化了，但是有时候进入你想学的班级课程还是很困难的，因为它们要求很高，可供选择的却很少。学校有很多学习的好地方：宿舍里的学习室，五层的图书馆，餐厅休息室，甚至是教室外，如果很安静的话(也适于学习)。
　　 3.Academics: The business school is more professional than any of the other four schools at Wash U. You start learning how to dress and prepare for interviews the first month or two of class. They have incredible resources available to you, the professors are all intelligent, assessable, and eloquent when it comes to teaching, and you can really tell their teaching comes first, even before research. There's always a ton of free food and Olin just opened their newest building this past January. Though it can get competitive at times and you are sometimes compared with your peers as far as grades go, I have absolutely no worries about landing an incredible, stable job to start at after graduation.
　　 学术： 华盛顿大学里的商学院要比其他四个学院更要专业化。你在大学的前一个月或前两个月会学习怎么样发表演讲和准备面试。他们有丰富的资源可供你利用，教授们都知识渊博，并平易近人;他们授课都是洋洋洒洒行云流水一般的顺畅，你很快就会发现他们各自的风格类型。总是会有免费的食品供应，奥林那里去年一月刚刚开放了最新的建筑。有时候，这里挑战性很高，随着年级的增高，有时你会被拿来和同龄人作比较。我对于毕业以后找一个很好又稳定的工作，开始我的职业生涯一点也不担心。
　　4.Academics: Similar to what I said above, the business school professors are really great, and put their students before their research. The facilities available to business students are incredible and there's always free food. Classes can get challenging and grades are curved against one another, so classes can get more competitive than in arts and sciences classes. That being said, Olin is nowhere near as competitive as other top notch business programs. The workload is challenging but very practical and useful for your future career. Go and study in the new business school building, Bauer hall. It's incredible in there.
　　学术：跟我已经说过的差不多，商学院的教授真的很棒，他们关注学生更甚于他们自己的研究。供学生利用的教学设施资源也都难以置信的好，并且还有免费的食品供应。课程有挑战性，学分也都难易不同。所以，这里的课程要比文理学院的课程更加具有挑战性。已经说过的那些——奥林商学院课程和其他顶尖商学院的课程项目一样具有挑战性。学习压力虽然很大，但是很符合实际情况也会对你以后的职业生涯很有帮助。去新建的商学院教学楼学习吧，Bauer大厅，那里好的很!
　　 5.Majors: No matter the school you are applying to the admissions rate is the exact same. That's because most students change not only their major but also their school while at Wash U (a lot of times from arts and sciences into the business school). Majors are flexible and it is easy to double major. The flexibility of curriculum at Wash U was one of the most appealing aspects for me.
　　 专业： 无论你申请的是哪个一学院，申请录取比率都几乎一样。因为很多学生在华盛顿大学学习的时候，不仅会换专业，也会转学院(很多时候是从艺术与科学学院转到商学院)。专业设置都很灵活，很容易就可以修双专业。华盛顿大学灵活的课程设置曾经也是吸引我的一个方面。
　　 6.Majors: Every summer I have had applicable and highly useful internships. After my freshman year I interned at an asset management firm, after sophomore year I did economic research at a leading industry report writing firm, and after my junior year I had a management consulting internship at a top 10 firm. Additionally on campus I was a microeconomics teaching assistant for many semesters.
　　 专业： 每年夏天我都能申请到很有帮助的实习机会。新生季过后，我在一家资产管理公司实习过;大二过后，我在一家主要的行业撰写报告公司做过经济行情调研;大三以后，我在一家排名前10的公司做过管理咨询的的实习。有时还在校内担当微观经济学的兼职助教。
　　 7.Majors: Getting into the different schools, cross studying between them, or even changing majors or the schools you study in is rather streamlined. The application process is pretty easy, and most students appreciate the way its set up without extra supplements and such. When many apply to many schools at once, ours was a breath of fresh air. A tip would be to show yourself as a well-rounded applicant--it's not all academics, its not all clubs, its not all community service. It's a well balanced blend.
　　 专业： 去不同的学院，跨专业学习，甚至是转专业或者转学院学习，在这里这些都是很流程化的。申请程序很简单，很多学生很喜欢这样的管理设置方式，不用额外补交其他材料。当很多人同时申请很多个学院的时候，我们的学院就没那么大压力。一个小提示：你要展示你是全面发展的申请者，不仅仅是学术方面，不仅是是户外俱乐部活动方面，也不仅仅是社区服务方面，而是一个全面协调发展的人才。
　　 8. Majors: There are a ton of opportunities to get involved in positions on campus, most having to do with your major. Many professors have positions to offer if the student merely asks and shows interest in their work. The career center and advisers are very helpful in finding summer or winter break internships.
　　 专业： 在学校里有很多机会学生可以获得某一个职位，很多都是和你的专业有关的。如果他们想要并且表现出对这份工作的兴趣的话，很多教授都有职位提供给学生。就业指导中心和顾问老师在夏季和冬季的实习期都能给学生提供很多帮助。
　　 9.Diversity: The campus grounds are beautiful and well maintained, the surrounding community is full of great restaurants and fun atmospheres. The school is highly ranked and the faculty are well prepared to foster the best learning environments. I am glad I ended up picking WashU!
　　 多样性： 校园非常美丽，并且维护的很好。校园四周的社区里有很多很好的餐厅，也有很好的环境。学校排名很靠前，教职人员也都时刻在为营造最好的学习环境而努力准备着。我很高兴最终我选择了华盛顿大学。
　　 10. Diversity: Students are very accepting, but there's still not a lot of diversity at Wash U. Specifically, there's not nearly enough latino representation. There is also isolation between students, especially international students. Then again, that's probably because they feel more comfortable interacting with students from their same country.
　　 多样性： 学生都乐于接纳新事物，但是学校的多样性还不是那么丰富。尤其是，学校还没有足够多的拉美元素。学生之间也有孤立现象，尤其是国际生之间。或许是他们觉得和自己本国的学生在一起更惬意一点。
　　 11.Diversity: WUSTL is very liberal, and there are a lot of international students. there are not, however, many latino/latina students, and there is a very affluent student body.
　　 多样性： 华盛顿大学自由之风盛行，这里也有很多国际学生。然而拉美裔学生不是很多，却有各种各样的学生组织。
　　 12.Administration: The school is very lenient on alcohol use and allows students to make their own choices provided they're being safe and not negatively affecting others. Weed is prevalent as well but is treated much differently by the administration and being caught with it is considered a serious offense. Other drugs can be found easily as well by those looking but are obviously not tolerated by the administration.
　　 校园管理： 学校在学生饮酒方面管理很宽松，允许学生自己做决定，前提是他们得确保安全以及不能对他人造成消极影响。大麻也很流行，但是学校对此管理很严格，如果被抓住携带大麻的话会被认为是很严重的违规事件。其他一些嗑药现象也很常见，看人的外在表现就能看出来，同样，这也是不被学校管理方面所允许的。
　　 13.Administration: The administration and so all in authority treat all students as responsible adults. That means we can drink even when we're underaged as long as we're responsible. The administration in that regard is very lenient - until you overstep your limits and are irresponsible or break an honor code in which case the school will crack down. This policy seems to work well on campus and keeps the students safe.
　　 校园管理： 学校在管理层和决策层都把学生当成成年人来对待。那也就意味着我们可以饮酒，即使未到法定饮酒年龄也可以，只要我们对自己的行为负责就好。这方面的管理非常宽松，除非你行为过火越界，或者不负责任，或者违反了学校的基本守则，那学校管理方面会严加处理。这一政策在学校施行良好，让学生们都觉得很安全。
　　 14.Athletics: The overall student body is relatively athletic, in that the gym facilities are consistently busy. However, most students do not pay attention to varsity sports. Our sports are D3, and although in some cases we are quite good in our division (such as the male and female basketball teams), there is not a strong fan base for any of the school's sports.
　　 体育运动： 总的来说，大部分学生还是相对很热衷体育的。体育馆里总是有很多人。但是，很多学生对各种体育活动并没太多兴趣。我们学校的体育隶属于D3级，尽管有些方面我们校队在我们的赛事分区做的很不错(比如男子篮球和女子篮球)，但是学校里与各种体育活动相关的粉丝群也没有那么强大。
　　 15. Guys & Girls: With 7,000 undergrads you're going to see a lot of diversity in looks, interests, social life, and relationships. Many students date, but there is also an active hookup culture. It is fairly easy to balance a social life with your school work. Students dress the way they want to - some in sweats and some in jeans and a blouse. I think Wash U has it's fair share of attractive students just like any other large university would.
　　 男生女生： 考虑到学校有7000多名本科生，你一定会遇到无论在外表，兴趣爱好，社交生活以及人际关系都不尽相同的人。很多学生都约会交友，这里也有很活跃的交友文化。你很容易就能协调好社交生活和学习两方面的事情。学生们在打扮上张扬个性，有人穿毛衣，有人穿牛仔和衬衫。我觉得华盛顿大学和其他大学一样，有它自己的引人注目的学生群体。
　　 16.Guys & Girls: Guys and girls here are great. You know everyone is here for the same reasons and is willing to work hard for what they want and value their education, but at the same time they know how to have a good time and relax. As far as relationships, it is very much a hook-up based culture, with not as many serious, exclusive relationships.
　　 男生女生： 这里的男生和女生都很出色。这里是每个人都是因为同样的理由来到这里的，都愿为自己想要的东西而努力工作，都很看重他们自身的教育的重要性，同时他们也懂得如何去消遣和放松。至于人际关系方面，这里有很好的约会环境与文化传统，也没什么很严重的排外关系。
　　 17.Campus Food: The campus food is delicious; there is a lot of variety. BD serves good food, but some special places include the Law Cafe and Holmes Lounge. I'm also a fan of Stanley's, in the basement of Lopata Hall.
　　 校园饮食： 校园里的食物都很美味。而且食物种类多样。BD那里提供的食物质量很好，一些特殊地方包括法律咖啡厅和福尔摩斯休息室。我个人也非常钟爱斯坦利那里，在 Lopata 大厅的地下室那块儿。
　　 18.Campus Food: Our campus dining is fantastic! We can get food on some places on campus up to 1am most nights, they have excellent dining staff who always talk to us and are really nice, the meals are really tasty and are usually pretty healthy, depending on what you get. BD and the Village House are the best places to get good food--the Village has the best brunch options on the weekends, both are open late, and both have the best staff. You can find just about everything on campus, and if it's not there, then its nearby and takes Bear Bucks.
　　 校园饮食： 我们学校的餐饮方面真是棒极了。我们在凌晨一点还能在学校的一些地方找到吃饭的地儿，他们有很优秀的餐厅服务人员，他们很友善喜欢和我们交流，食物也很美味健康。BD和农家乐园是最好的就餐的地方，周末农家乐农家乐那里有最好的各种不同的早午餐提供，这两个地方都营业到很晚，两个地方的营业员都很好。在学校里你几乎能找到各种食物，如果这里没有的话，附近肯定有.
　 　19.Campus Housing: The dorms here are wonderful; they are spacious, with nice carpeting and temper-pedic mattresses. They are very clean. Most dorms have personal bathrooms shared among 4-6 others, and the school provides cleaning staff to clean the showers, sink, and bathroom stall. The dorms are pretty expensive, but they are luxurious compared to many other universities.
　　 校园住宿： 这里的宿舍好的很，很宽敞，有很漂亮的地毯和缓冲床垫，它们也都很干净。许多宿舍有洗澡间，由4--6个人共有。学校还提供清洁器物，好清洗淋浴设备，水槽和其他的洗浴用品等。这里的宿舍相当贵，但和其他学校比起来，它们都是奢侈品了。
　　 20.Campus Housing: The dorms are a bit expensive, but it i well worth every penny. From the tempurpedic mattresses to the maids that clean your bathrooms once a week, it is almost like living in a hotel filled with your closest friends.
　　 校园住宿： 宿舍有点贵，但绝对是物有所值。从弹簧床垫到一周一次的洗涤用品发放，那就像和最亲密的好朋友住酒店一样的感觉。
　　 21.Health & Safety: I personally feel very safe on campus. WUPD has a strong campus presence, especially at night, and all students know which numbers to call or where to go in the event that they do not feel safe for whatever reason. There are blue emergency buttons all over campus for students to press for help in case of an emergency. Outsiders do not have access to any of the dorms or rooms without a Wash U ID and a separate, specific room key. I have heard very little of campus crime, if anything people will take what they find and post it on a Facebook group for their rightful owners to hopefully claim. Overall a very safe and secure community.
　　 健康与安全： 我个人感觉在校内非常安全。华盛顿大学校警部门有很强的存在感，尤其是在夜间更是如此。学生们都知道不论什么状况下，当自己感觉不安全的时候要拨的那些号码，以及可以去的那些地方去寻求帮助。全校布满了蓝警紧急按钮，以便学生在紧急时刻使用寻求帮助。外来者没有华盛顿大学身份证和独立特别的房间钥匙的话，不能进入任何一个宿舍和教室。我很少听到有什么校内犯罪情况发生，如果有事发生的话，人们会把他们的见闻第一时间在脸书的朋友圈里发布，以获取独家发布的权利。总之，这是个很安全的大社区。
　　 22.Transportation: There is a campus bus that circulates around campus on a daily schedule. It's location and pick up times are tracked on the free campus app so it is very easy to use. The school works with public transportation to provide free bus and metro passes to all students on a semester basis so it is free to get around the city as well. As a student, you can also register for free with Enterprise CarShare which allows students to rent a vehicle for a number of hours at a rate of $5 per hour if they need a personal vehicle to get somewhere (if it is to a community service project, the community service office will pay the rental fee).
　　 交通： 有一辆校园巴士每天按日程在校内循环，在免费的校园APP客户端可以查询它的停靠地点和上下站点，很容易乘坐。学校和公共交通部门通力合作，为学生提供一学期免费的巴士和地铁乘坐服务，所以去市里也是很方便的。作为学生，如果你需要一辆私家车去某个地方的话，你也可以去“汽车共享之家”免费登记注册去申请租一辆汽车，使用几个小时，租金是5美元一小时。(如果是为了社区服务要租车用，社区服务办公室会支付租金)
　　 22. Transportation: There are two metro stops right on campus and since St. Louis is set up in an east-west line you can get essentially anywhere via metro. On top of that there's a carshare service on campus - $5 an hour to rent an enterprise car, located at every lot on campus. There's also a bus that shuttles around campus, circling around every 20 minutes.
　　 交通： 学校那里有两个地铁站，自从圣路易斯市被纳入东西地铁线路之后，基本上你可以乘地铁去任何你想去的地方。除此之外，还有一个“汽车共享之家”服务中心——可以5美元一小时出租汽车，可以在校内任何地方停靠。还有一个校内巴士班车，每20分钟一班。
　　 23.Local Area: The loop and clayton areas have so much to do and are pretty upscale. Forest park, which is right next to the school and is actually larger than central park is perfect for running and outdoor activities.
　　 本地概况： 克莱顿地区有很多事情可以做，那里也很有规模颇上档次。有森林公园，和学校紧挨着。实际上那可是比中央公园还要大一些的公园，很适于跑步和户外活动。
　　 24. Local Area: St. Louis has a lot of stuff going on and there is always public transportation to take you to local activities. Also, the happenings in Forest Park are often free and students can walk to those activities.
　　 本地概况： 圣路易斯那里有很多好玩的事物，总是会有公共交通工具能把你带去参加本地的活动。同样，在森林公园举行的那些活动一般都是免费的，学生可以步行走去参加。

张小军的学术成果

代表性著作2003《福建杉洋村落碑铭》香港：华南研究出版社1991《社会场论》北京：团结出版社。代表性论文2002<从象征生产到制度实现——阳村土改中划阶级的象征资本再生产>,载《清华社会学评论》，2002年第一卷，第一期。2001〈象征资本的再生产〉，《社会学研究》2001年第三期。2001〈民族志的回顾与反思〉，文思理著，张小军译，《清华社会学评论》，2002年第一卷，第一期。2000〈佛寺与宗祠：泉州开元寺的历史个案研究〉，载《传统与变迁——华南的认同和文化》，北京：文津出版社。1999〈文化的经营：福建阳村李氏宗祠「复兴」的研究〉，载《经营文化香港商务印书馆1999年（即将出版）。1999〈宗族结构关系的再思考〉，载《中国家庭及其伦理》，台湾：《汉学研究》杂志出版。1998〈理解中国乡村内卷化的机制〉，香港：《二十一世纪》1998年2月号（总第45期），P150－159。1998〈田野影像的民族志－－宗族「复兴」中的历史重构〉，香港：《香港人类学》总第11期。1998〈天后北传与历史再造－－北方天后庙的田野考察〉，博士後研究论文，载《天后庙与妈祖崇拜》（论文集，正在编辑出版）。1996〈女性与宗族〉，香港：《二十一世纪》1996年10月号（总第37期），页150-59。1995〈儒家何在？－－华南人类学田野考察〉，香港：《二十一世纪》1995年6月号（总第29期），P149-157。1994〈民间信仰复兴与地方文化重构〉，香港：《香港人类学》,第七期，页13-19。1992DragonBoatFestival(VideoTape《端午节》录象片).Co-directedwithZhuangKongshao,Seattle:UniversityofWashingtonPress（西雅图：美国华盛顿大学出版社出版）。1992〈社会场的吸引进化〉，北京：《中国人民大学学报》，第二期，页106-111。1991〈蒿洋民间宗教与信仰一瞥〉，济南：《民俗研究》，第3期，页60-63。1991〈东西方文化的兴衰与自组织社会学研究〉，成都：《社会科学研究》，第6期，页68－70。1991〈中国现实文化选择中的知识分子〉，《青年思想家》，第一期，页77-81。1989〈北方一个汉族村落的社会文化变迁〉，（与庄孔韶）《汉民族研究》（第一辑），广西人民出版社。1989〈本土方法学刍议〉，北京：《社会学与社会调查》，第五期。1988〈人格现代化〉，北京：《中国人民大学学报》，第五期，页102-108。1987〈社会系统认识论的几个问题〉，郑州：《大学文科园地》（郑州大学文科学报），第二期。1987〈城乡社区的三种融合模式〉，上海：《社会科学》1987年第十一期。1986〈社会学中的系统哲学〉，上海：《社会科学》1986年第十二期。近年主要学术发表（2000年以来）1、主要论文（1）English:2012 Lineage and Family, Chinese Society – Change and Transformation, edited by Li Peilin, London and New York: Routledge.2007 Collective Memory of the “Pagodatree”: Cultural Informator in Social Transformation. With Xu Jing，Cognitive Science International workshop. Washington University and Tsinghua University.2006 Water，Deity and Power: A case study of water temples in Shanxi province。SEAA Conference，July 2006.2005 Gongde Temples and Fujian Local Religion since Song Dynasty. IAHR Conference, March,2005.2004 Land Reform in Yang Village: Reproduction of Symbolic Capital and the Determination of Class Status. Modern China 30(1):1-48, Jan.2004. (SSCI)2004 Symbolic Land Rights in Its Cultural Economic Context： A Case Study of Yang Village, Fujian. Social Sciences in China，winter, 2004, pp41-54.2002 Ancestral Hall and Buddhist Gongde Temple. Chinese Sociology and Anthropology. Vol.34, No.3, pp28-48. (SSCI)（2）中文（部分）：2012 人类学研究的文化范式——“波粒二象性”视野中的文化与社会，《中国农业大学学报》2012年第2期。（CSSCI）《社会学》2012.9（中国人民大学复印报刊资料全文转发） （CSSCI）2012 为何他乡成故乡？——大槐树传说之集体记忆的民族主义建构。载《中国人类学》，2012年第1期。2012 文治复兴与礼法变革——祠堂之制和祖先之礼的个案研究。《清华大学学报》，2012年第2期。（CSSCI）《社会学》2012.7（中国人民大学复印报刊资料全文转发）（CSSCI），上海《高校文科学术文摘》2012.3全文转发。《社会学报》2012.2全文转发。2012 历史人类学与中国研究，《人类学讲堂》（第一辑），潘蛟主编，知识产权出版社。2012 宗族与中国社会，《人类学讲堂》（第二辑）潘蛟主编，知识产权出版社。2012 让文化拥有自由——法国布列塔尼文化遗产保护考察随笔〈社会学家茶座〉2012年6期。2010 “被族群”：丽江古城的文化保护困境。载《中国社会科学报》2010.9.2.2009 中国12村贫困调查——晓锐村，张小军、马亚萍、朱宇晶。载《中国12村贫困调查》（甘肃、内蒙卷），张小军、马春华主编。社科文献出版社。2009 中国12村贫困调查——乾分村，张小军、马亚萍、朱宇晶。载《中国12村贫困调查》（甘肃、内蒙卷），张小军、马春华主编。社科文献出版社。2009 人类发展理念下的贫困问题反思，载《中国12村贫困调查》（理论卷），王晓毅主编，社科文献出版社。2009 咸与权：历史上自贡盐业的市场分析，《清华大学学报》2009第二期。（人大报刊复印资料2009年第6期转载）2009 实践史:一个历史人类学的研究视角——以民间信仰研究为例，载《谁的信仰，谁的空间？》，复旦大学文史研究院编，上海古籍出版社。2009 电影《色·戒》鉴赏的文化实践，载《异文化与多元媒体》，乔健主编，台北：世新大学出版中心。2008 宗族与家族，载《社会学与中国社会》，社科文献出版社。2008 文化生态与文化环保，载《绿叶——传统文化与现代化专辑》，中国环境文化促进会编。《中国社会科学文摘》2008年12期转摘。2007 复合产权：一个实质论和资本体系的视角——山西介休洪山泉的历史水权个案研究，《社会学研究》，2007年第4期。2007 爱的实践：艾滋病防治中的社会性别主流化。与许晶合作，载张小军主编《文化的挑战——文化全球化和社会发展的本土思考》，香港：中国世纪出版集团有限公司。2007 秩序剥夺与城市底边阶级的形成，乔健主编《底边阶级与边缘社会》，台北：立绪文化事业有限公司。2007 历史人类学：一个跨学科和去学科的视野。《清华历史讲堂初编》，三联书店2007年。2007 遗存还是遗产？——简论文化全球化中的“文化遗产”困境，《中国非物质文化遗产保护研究》（上），北京师范大学出版社。2006 产权改制与城市底边阶级的形成——兼论科斯逆定理与产权定理。台湾第七届（2003-2006）大学讲座计划“底边阶级的传统与现代”会议论文（2006.5.台北）。2006 跨学科与去学科：人类学的三个视角，《光明日报》（理论版）2006年3月28日第12版。2006 认知人类学浅谈，《光明日报》（理论版）2006年11月。2006 社会围绕“现代化”和经济中轴安排的弊端，《中国与世界观察》，2006年第1期。2006 人类发展和遗产保护事业中的乡村旅游。世界旅游组织：《“乡村旅游国际论坛”论文集》。2006 《陕山地区水资源与民间社会调查资料集》补遗七则，张小军、卜永坚、丁荷声，《华南研究资料中心通讯》第42期。2005 《城市贫困的制度思维〉，张小军、裴晓梅，《江苏社会科学》，2005年第6期。2004 《象征地权与文化经济——福建阳村的历史地权个案研究》，《中国社会科学》，2004年第3期。2003 《历史的人类学化和人类学的历史化》，《历史人类学学刊》1(1):1-28。2003 《阳村土改中的象征资本再生产》，《中国乡村研究》，总第二辑，商务印书馆。2003 《导言》，李孝聪、邓小南、筱君（张小军），载黄竹三、冯俊杰编著，《洪洞介休水利碑刻辑录》,中华书局。2003 《民族志方法论的互补性》，《文化人类学理论新视野》（论文集），香港：国际炎黄文化出版社。2002 《宗族化中的功德寺院》，《台湾宗教研究》第二卷，第一期。2002 《阳村的境社与宗族》，《民俗曲艺》（宗教与地方社会专辑II），总第138期。2002 《双重部门与影子国家——平昌源神庙水碑文的田野考察》，《扩展中的公共空间——中国第三部门研究年鉴2001年》，天津人民出版社。2002 《宗族与地方老人政治》，《当代中国农村与乡村治理》，肖唐镖等主编，西北大学出版社。2000 《传统文化生产中的象征性实践》，《清华社会学评论》2001年，第一期。2001 《象征资本的再生产——从阳村宗族论民国基层社会》，《社会学研究》，2001年第三期。2000 《佛寺与宗祠：泉州开元寺的历史个案研究》，载《传统与变迁——华南的认同和文化》，北京：文津出版社。2000 《银翅：中国本土的现象学？》，《清华社会学评论》，2000年创刊号。2、著作：2004 《蓝田》。北京：三联书店（国际书号：ISBN7-108-01969-8/K·416）2003 《福建杉洋村落碑铭》。张小军、余理民，香港：华南研究出版社（国际书号：ISBN 962- 5273-6-3）3、主编：2009 《中国12村贫困调查》（甘肃、内蒙卷），张小军、马春华主编。社科文献出版社。2009 《中国12村贫困调查》（江西、云南卷），张小军、谭深主编。社科文献出版社。2007 《文化的挑战——文化全球化和社会发展的本土思考》，张小军主编，香港：中国世纪出版集团有限公司。2007 《能力与贫困——中国城市贫困的个案研究》，张小军、裴晓梅主编，香港社会科学出版有限公司。2002 《历史与社会》（第七册）。张小军主编。教育部九年义务教育试验教材。人民教育出版社。ISBN 7-107-16201-2/G·92912001 《清华社会学评论》，2001年第一期。执行主编。北京友谊图书出版公司。2001 《传统与变迁——华南的认同和文化》，陈志明、张小军编，北京文津出版社。4、学术随笔和翻译2010 中山先生论房地产，《社会学家茶座》2010年第5期。2009 大湖人家，《社会学家茶座〉2009年第1期。2008 统一与多样化，载《这个世界，我们的——中欧思想者越洋对话》，中国传媒大学出版社。2008 印加文明和生态悲剧，《社会学家茶座》，2008年第6期。2008 南美第一古迹——马丘比丘，《社会学家茶座》，2008年第5期。2008 利马印象，《社会学家茶座》，2008年第4期。2007 二分陷阱与中国本土思想，《社会学家茶座》，2007年第1期。2006 谁在侵蚀中国文化的灵魂？《环球时报》第1180期，2006年6月13日第13版。2004 《反抗还是共谋——阿米巴效应和人类变形虫》，《社会学家茶座》，2004年第三期。2003 《未画句号的〈人类责任宪章〉》，《回顾与前瞻：建立一个协力尽责和多元的世界的对话》，欧洲梅耶人类进步基金会。2000 《从王安石变法看官民关系》，《社会学家茶座》2002年第一期。2001 《民族志的回顾与思考》，文思理著，张小军译，《清华社会学评论》，2001年第一期。2000 《划：话，化——江西人类学田野考察随笔》，《二十一世纪》，2000年6月号。近年主要研究项目课题（2000年以来）:2010-2012 清华大学自主科研项目：美沙酮疗法戒毒的社会学和生理学综合评估指标研究，负责人；2009-2010 国家科技重大专项课题（科技部2008ZX1000103）:《我国艾滋病流行规律、疫情评估和预测方法研究》子项目：中国艾滋病传播模式、干预力度和感染率定量关联模型的研究，项目负责人；2009 世界宣明会：云南永胜扶贫综合项目专项评估，项目负责人；2008 世界宣明会：陕西商洛扶贫综合项目中期评估，项目负责人；2007-2008 世界银行贷款项目：贵州文化遗产保护与发展项目——社会影响评估项目，技术负责人；2007 世界宣明会：甘肃临夏扶贫综合项目中期评估项目，项目负责人；2007 清华大学艾滋病防治政策研究中心项目：中国艾滋病社会影响态势指数体系研究，项目负责人；2006 卫生部：第四轮全球基金艾滋病项目：社会性别主流化研究报告——贵州省，项目负责人；2005-2007 清华大学亚洲研究中心项目：“在人类发展理论下反思全球化对中国社会的影响”，课题负责人；2005-2006 世界银行和中国社科院合作研究项目：“走出贫困：中国贫困的定性研究”，甘肃子项目负责人；2005 DFID：中英艾滋病项目：四川凉山州政策支持项目，项目负责人；2003-2005 国家社科基金办公室：国家社科基金项目：北京、重庆、沈阳及兰州四城市贫困人口生活形态研究，课题负责人；2004-2006 教育部：全国教育科学“十五”规划重点课题：贫困地区义务教育和儿童失学问题的系统性研究，课题负责人；2004 英国国际发展部（DFID）与北京社科院社会发展资源中心项目：“社会发展的理论”，研究项目负责人；2002-2003 英国国际发展部（DFID）项目：甘肃临夏义务教育项目评估，项目负责人；2001-2004 北京市哲学社会科学“十五”规划项目：北京市城市贫困人口的性别、家庭和下岗因素研究，课题负责人；2002 英国国际发展部（DFID）项目：甘肃贫困地区失学问题研究，项目负责人；2000-2002 法国远东学院：中、法合作研究项目：水利与民间组织，山西介休子课题负责人。

社会科学研究论文-methodology部分

方法部分描述了调查研究问题所应采取的行动，以及用于识别，选择，处理和分析用于理解问题的信息的特定过程或技术的应用原理，从而使读者能够对其进行严格评估。研究的整体有效性和可靠性。研究论文的方法论部分回答了两个主要问题：如何收集或生成数据？而且，如何对其进行分析？写作应该直接准确，并且总是以过去时态书写。

Kallet, Richard H. "How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper."? Respiratory Care ?49 (October 2004): 1229-1232.

您必须出于以下原因说明如何获得和分析结果：

读者需要知道如何获取数据，因为您选择的方法会影响结果，并由此扩展您如何在论文的讨论部分中解释其重要性。

方法论对于任何学科的研究都是至关重要的，因为一种不可靠的方法会产生不可靠的结果，从而破坏您对调查结果的分析的价值。

在大多数情况下，您可以选择多种不同的方法来调查研究问题。您论文的“方法论”部分应清楚阐明选择特定程序或技术的原因。

读者想知道数据是按照与研究领域公认的惯例一致的方式收集或生成的。例如，如果您使用的是多项选择调查表，那么读者需要知道它为您的受访者提供了合理范围的答案供您选择。

该方法必须适合于实现研究的总体目标。例如，您需要确保样本量足够大，以便能够根据发现进行概括并提出建议。

该方法应讨论预期的问题以及为防止这些问题发生而采取的步骤。对于确实出现的任何问题，您必须描述将其最小化的方式，或者为什么这些问题不会以任何有意义的方式影响您对发现的解释。

在社会科学和行为科学中，始终提供足够的信息以允许其他研究人员采用或复制您的方法很重要。当开发出新方法或利用现有方法的创新用法时，此信息特别重要。

Bem, Daryl J.? Writing the Empirical Journal Article . Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Denscombe, Martyn.? The Good Research Guide: For Small-Scale Social Research Projects . 5th edition. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 2014; Lunenburg, Frederick C.? Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008.



一、研究方法组

社会科学中主要有两种研究方法：

The empirical analytical group?接近于社会科学的研究以类似的方式，研究人员研究自然科学 。这种类型的研究集中于客观知识，可以回答“是”或“不是”的研究问题以及要测量的变量的操作定义。经验分析小组采用演绎推理，这种演绎推理使用现有理论作为制定需要检验的假设的基础。这种方法侧重于解释。

The interpretative group 的重点是了解现象的综合，全面的方式 。解释性方法侧重于分析性地披露人类受试者的意义实践[人们为什么，如何或以何种方式进行其工作]，同时说明这些实践如何安排以便可以用来产生可观察到的结果。解释性方法可让您识别与所调查现象的联系。但是，解释性小组需要仔细检查变量，因为它更侧重于主观知识。

二、内容

方法论部分的介绍应从重新阐述研究问题和基础假设出发。 然后，将您用来收集，分析和处理信息的方法置于研究领域的整体“传统”之内，并选择了研究问题的特定研究设计。如果您选择的方法超出了您所在领域的传统[即，您对文献的审查表明该方法不常用]，请为您选择的方法如何专门解决尚未解决的研究问题提供理由在先前的研究中被利用。

方法的其余部分应描述以下内容：

在选择您要分析的数据时做出的决定，或者在进行定性研究时要选择您所研究的主题和研究背景，

用于识别和收集信息的工具和方法，以及如何识别相关变量，

处理数据的方式以及用于分析数据的过程，以及

您用来研究基本假设和研究问题的特定研究工具或策略。

您可以通过Supremessays.com获得有关这部分的帮助。此外，有效编写的方法部分应：

介绍调查研究问题的总体方法论方法 。您的研究是定性的还是定量的，还是两者的结合（混合方法）？您要采取一种特殊的方法，例如行动研究还是更中立的立场？

说明该方法如何适合整体研究设计 。您收集数据的方法应与您的研究问题有明确的联系。换句话说，请确保您的方法将实际解决该问题。研究论文中发现的最普遍的缺陷之一是，所提出的方法不适合实现论文的既定目标。

描述您将要使用的数据收集的特定方法 ，例如调查，访谈，问卷，观察，档案研究。如果要分析现有数据，例如数据集或档案文档，请描述其最初的创建或收集方式以及收集人。此外，请务必说明较旧的数据仍然与调查当前的研究问题相关。

说明您打算如何分析结果 。您会使用统计分析吗？您是否会使用特定的理论观点来帮助您分析文本或解释观察到的行为？描述如何计划对数据中的关系，模式，趋势，分布和可能的矛盾进行准确的评估。

为您的读者不熟悉的方法提供背景知识和基本原理 。在社会科学中，研究问题及其研究方法通常需要比自然科学和物理科学广泛接受的规则更多的解释/理由。解释要简洁明了。

为受试者选择和抽样程序提供理由 。例如，如果您打算进行访谈，您打算如何选择样本人群？如果要分析文本，则选择了哪些文本，为什么？如果使用统计信息，为什么要使用这组数据？如果存在其他数据源，请说明为什么选择的数据最适合解决研究问题。

提供 案例研究 选择的理由 。分析社会科学中研究问题的常用方法是分析具体案例。这些可以是人，地点，事件，现象或其他类型的分析主题，这些主题可以作为深度调查的单个主题进行检查，也可以作为比较或对比发现的目的而研究的多个调查主题。无论采用哪种方法，都应解释为什么选择一个或多个案例以及它们与研究问题的具体联系。

描述潜在的局限性 。是否存在任何可能影响您的数据收集的实际限制？您将如何尝试控制潜在的混杂变量和错误？如果您的方法可能导致您可以预期的问题，请公开声明并说明为什么采用这种方法要比这些问题冒出来的风险更大。

注意 ：? 编写了方法部分的所有元素后，后续修订应着重于如何尽可能清楚和逻辑地呈现这些元素。 对您准备如何研究问题的描述，如何收集数据以及用于分析数据的协议应按时间顺序进行组织。为了清楚起见，当必须提供大量详细信息时，应根据主题在小节中提供信息。如有必要，请考虑对原始数据使用附录。

另一个 注意事项 ： 如果您要对研究问题进行定性分析 ，则方法学部分通常需要比使用以下方法 进行研究 所需的更为详尽的描述，以及对用于收集和分析数据的过程的解释：定量方法。因为您是生成数据的主要工具（例如，通过访谈或观察），所以收集数据的过程对产生调查结果的影响更大。因此，定性研究需要对所用方法进行更详细的描述。

另一个 注意事项 ：? 如果您的研究涉及与人类受试者有关的访谈，观察或其他定性技术 ，则可能需要您在开始研究之前获得大学 研究对象保护办公室的 批准。对于大多数本科级别的学生研究任务而言，这不是常见的程序。但是，我如果您的教授声明您需要批准，则必须在您的方法部分中添加以下说明：您已获得办公室的正式认可和充分知情同意，并且对参与者和大学进行了明确的评估并最大程度地降低了风险。此声明告知读者您的研究是以道德和负责任的方式进行的。在某些情况下，批准通知书将作为您论文的附录。

Bem, Daryl J.? Writing the Empirical Journal Article . Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Denscombe, Martyn.? The Good Research Guide: For Small-Scale Social Research Projects . 5th edition. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 2014; Lunenburg, Frederick C.? Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008.

三，应避免的问题

不相关的细节

您论文的方法论部分应该透彻而简洁。不要提供任何不能直接帮助读者理解为什么选择特定方法，如何收集或获取数据以及如何针对研究问题对数据进行分析的背景信息[注：已分析，未解释！保存讨论部分的结果解释方式]。考虑到这一点，“方法”部分的页面长度通常比论文的其他部分（结论除外）要短。

基本过程的不必要说明

请记住，您并不是在编写有关特定方法的方法指南。您应该假设读者对如何独自研究问题有基本的了解，因此，您不必对特定的方法学步骤进行详尽的研究。重点应该放在如何 应用方法上 ，而不是在 执行方法的机制上。 如果您选择一种非常规方法论方法，则此规则是一个例外。如果是这种情况，请务必说明为什么选择这种方法以及如何增强发现的整体过程。

问题失明

几乎可以肯定的是，在收集或生成数据时会遇到问题，或者在现有数据或档案资料中将存在空白。不要忽略这些问题或假装它们没有发生。通常，记录如何克服障碍可以成为方法学中一个有趣的部分。它向读者证明，您可以为做出的决定提供有说服力的理由，以最大程度地减少出现的任何问题的影响。

文献综述

正如本文的文献综述部分概述了您在研究特定主题时所检查的来源一样，方法学部分应引用任何可为您选择和应用特定方法[即调查选择]的来源。应该包括对您用来帮助构建调查的作品的任何引用]。

不仅仅是信息来源！

研究方法的描述不应与信息来源的描述相混淆。这样的资源清单本身是有用的，特别是在附有有关资源选择和使用的解释时，尤其如此。对项目方法的描述补充了来源清单，因为它阐明了来自这些来源的信息的组织和解释。

Azevedo, L.F. et al. "How to Write a Scientific Paper: Writing the Methods Section."? Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia ?17 (2011): 232-238; Blair Lorrie. “Choosing a Methodology.” In? Writing a Graduate Thesis or Dissertation , Teaching Writing Series. (Rotterdam: Sense Publishers 2016), pp. 49-72; Butin, Dan W.? The Education Dissertation A Guide for Practitioner Scholars . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2010; Carter, Susan.? Structuring Your Research Thesis . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012; Kallet, Richard H. “How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper.”? Respiratory Care ?49 (October 2004):1229-1232; Lunenburg, Frederick C.? Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008.? Methods Section . The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison;?Rudestam, Kjell Erik and Rae R. Newton. “The Method Chapter: Describing Your Research Plan.” In? Surviving Your Dissertation: A Comprehensive Guide to Content and Process . (Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, 2015), pp. 87-115;? What is Interpretive Research . Institute of Public and International Affairs, University of Utah;? Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University;? Methods and Materials . The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.

统计设计和测试？不要害怕他们！

不要因为担心使用统计设计和测试的想法而避免使用定量方法来分析您的研究问题。定性方法（例如进行采访或对归档文本进行内容分析）可以产生有关研究问题的令人振奋的新见解，但不应仅仅因为您对运行简单回归感到不屑一顾而采取这种定性方法。精心设计的定量研究通常可以非常明确直接的方式完成，而类似的定性研究通常需要大量时间来分析大量数据，并且需要巨大的负担来创建新的分析路径，而以前是没有路径的与您的研究问题相关的问题已经存在。

了解理论与方法之间的关系

在社会科学研究中，术语“理论”和术语“方法”可能有多种含义。在它们之间进行描述的一种有用方法是，将“理论”理解为代表研究社会世界的不同方式，将“方法”理解为代表生成和分析有关社会世界的数据的不同方式。这样构成的所有实证社会科学研究都涉及理论和方法，无论是否明确陈述。但是，尽管理论和方法通常是相关的，但重要的是，作为研究人员，您有意将它们分开，以避免您的理论在塑造所选方法产生的结果方面起不成比例的作用。

内省地在理论和方法的应用之间进行辩证，以帮助您使用方法的结果来询问和发展新的理论，或从概念上界定研究问题的方式。这就是奖学金不断增长并扩展到新的知识领域的方式。

方法与方法论

不要混淆术语“方法”和“方法”。正如施耐德（Schneider）所说， 一种方法是指进行研究的技术步骤 。方法的描述通常包括定义和说明为什么您选择了研究研究问题的特定技术，然后概述了用于系统地选择，收集和处理数据的过程的概要[记住，始终保存对数据的解释。您论文的讨论部分]。

该方法论指的是对为什么使用特定方法的根本原因的讨论 。讨论内容包括描述指导应用方法选择的理论概念，将方法的选择置于学术工作的更一般性质之内，并回顾其与研究问题的相关性。方法论部分还包括对其他学者用来研究该主题的方法的全面回顾。

Bryman, Alan. "Of Methods and Methodology."? Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal ?3 (2008):159-168; Schneider, Florian. “What's in a Methodology: The Difference between Method, Methodology, and Theory…and How to Get the Balance Right?”? PoliticsEastAsia.com . Chinese Department, University of Leiden, Netherlands.

参考文献英文题目

　　下面是我为大家整理的一些关于“英文文献格式”的资料，供大家参阅。
　　参考文献
　　I.文内引用
　　(一) 直接引用
　　1. 引用中的省略
　　原始资料的引用：在正文中直接引用时，应给出作者、年份，并用带括号的数字标出页码。若有任何资料省略，使用英文时，应用3个省略号在句中标出(?)，中文用6个(??);若两句间的资料省略，英文应用4个省略号标出(‥‥)，中文用6个(??)。若要在直接引用插入自己的解释，应使用方括号[ ]。若在资料中有什么错误拼写、错误语法或标点错误会使读者糊涂，应在引用后立即插入[sic]，中文用[原文如此]。下面是一些示例：
　　例一：The DSM IV defines the disorder [dysthymic] as being in a chronically depressed mood that occurs for "most of the day more days than not for at least two years (Criterion A) .... In children, the mood may be irritable rather than depressed, and the required minimum duration is only one year" (APA, 1994, p. 345).
　　例二：Issac (1995) states that bipolar disorder "is not only uncommon but may be the most diagnostic entity in children and adolescents in similar settings .... and may be the most common diagnosis in adolescents who are court-remanded to such settings" (p.275).
　　2.大段落引用
　　当中文引用超过160字时，不使用引号，而使用“块”的形式(引用起于新的一行，首行缩进4个空格，两端对齐，之后每行都缩进)。
　　当英文引用超过40字时，不使用引号，而使用“块”的形式(引用起于新的一行，首行缩进5个空格，左对齐，之后每行都缩进)。 Elkind (1978) states:
　　In general, our findings support Piaget's view that perceptions as well as intelligence are neither entirely inborn nor entirely innate but are rather progressively constructed through the gradual development of perceptual regulations. The chapter has also attempted to demonstrate the applicability of Piaget's theory to practical issues by summarizing some research growing out of an analysis of beginning reading. (p.183)
　　(二)间接引用
　　1.基本格式
　　同作者在同一段中重复被引用时，第一次必须写出日期，第二次以后则日期可省略。
　　a.英文文献：In a recent study of reaction times, Walker (2000)
　　described the method?Walker also found?。
　　b.中文文献：李福印(2004)提出概念隐喻的重要性，?;李福印同时建
　　议?。
　　2. 单一作者
　　a. 英文文献：姓氏(出版或发表年代)或(姓氏，出版或发表年代)。 例如：Porter (2001)?或?(Porter, 2001)。
　　b. 中文文献：姓名(出版或发表年代)或(姓名，出版或发表年代)。 例如：杨惠中(2011)?或?(杨惠中，2011)。
　　3.两个作者
　　英文引用时，在圆括号内使用两名作者的姓氏，并使用“&”来连接，在正文中，使用“and”连接两名作者。
　　中文引用时，在圆括号内使用两名作者的姓名，并用顿号“、”来连接，在正文中，使用 “和”、“与”、“及”等字连接两名作者。
　　例如：
　　(Smith & Jones, 1994), or Smith and Jones (1994) found....
　　In 1994 Smith and Jones researched.... Always cite both names in text. 陈国华和田兵(2008)认为?或?(陈国华、田兵，2008)
　　4.三至五个作者
　　英文第一次引用参考资料时，列出所有的作者的姓氏，除最后一名作者之前在正文中使用逗号加“and”、在圆括号内使用逗号加“&”连接外，之前的其他作者之间使用逗号“，”;之后引用时，英文用第一个作者的姓随之以“et al.”。
　　中文第一次引用参考资料时，列出所有作者的姓名，除最后两名作者之间用“和”连接外，之前的其他作者之间使用顿号“、”;之后引用时，用第一名作者加“等”字。
　　例如：
　　Strasburger, Jorgensen, and Randles (1996) found differences.... (第一次使用).
　　Strasburger et al. (1996) also created tests.... (在段落中第二次使用).
　　Starsburger et al. found discrepancies.... (此时省略年份).
　　卫乃兴、李文中与濮建忠(2005)指出?或?(卫乃兴、李文中、濮建忠，2005)。(第一次使用)
　　卫乃兴等(2005)指出?或?(卫乃兴等，2005)。(第二次使用)
　　5.六个作者及以上
　　使用英文时，只用第一个人的姓氏加“et al.”;使用中文时，只列出第一名作者的姓名，再加上“等”。
　　例如：
　　Pouliquen et al. (2003)??或??(Pouliquen et al., 2003)
　　王洪俊等(2007)?或?(王洪俊等,2007)
　　6.团体作者
　　使用中文时，第一次用全称，比如，(首都师范大学 教育 科学学院[首师大教科院]，2001);之后可以用简称，比如，首师大教科院(2001)的调查表明??。
　　使用英文时，第一次引用时，拼出团体，比如, (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 1996);以后用团体缩写加年份表示，比如，The NIMH (1996) examined....。
　　7.没有作者的文献
　　当一部作品没有作者时，在文中引用参考文献目录单中的前几个字(通常是标题)和年份。比如，一项关于成年人 抑郁症 的调查(“Study Finds”, 1997) 报告 ??。
　　当某作品的作者列为“Anonymous”、中文使用“匿名”或“无名氏”时，英文引用时用“Anonymous”加逗号及年份，即(Anonymous, 1997)，中文用“匿名”加逗号及年份，即(匿名，1997)。
　　8.英文文献作者姓氏相同
　　英文文献作者姓氏相同时，相同姓氏之作者于 论文 中引用时均引用全名，以避免混淆。
　　例如：R. D. Luce (1995) and G. E. Luce (1988)?。
　　9.多篇文献
　　a. 多篇文献，同一作者
　　若一作者有多篇你想引用的文献，只需用逗号“，”来区隔作品的发表年份(最早到最晚依序排列)。若多篇文献在同一年内发表，请在年份后面加上a、b、c??等标注。(按：abc的使用需与参考文献部分有所对应，而这些文献的编排以标题名称的字母来 决定 。)
　　例如：
　　1)A recent study found a possible genetic cause of alcoholism (Pauling, 2004, 2005a, 2005b).
　　2)Pauling (2004, 2005a, 2005b) conducted a study that discovered a possible genetic cause of alcoholism
　　b.多篇文献，多位作者
　　文献依姓氏字母(笔画)、出版年代等顺序排列，不同作者之间用分号“;”分开，相同作者不同年代之文献用逗号“，” 分开。
　　例如：?(Pautler, 1992; Razik & Swanson, 1993a, 1993b)。
　　例如：?(董伟，2010;周音，2011a，2011b)。II. 参考文献
　　所有的参考文献使用“悬挂缩进”格式。参考文献按照作者姓的字母或拼音顺序排列于文后，参考文献的序号左顶格，并用数字加方括号表示，如[1]、
　　[2]、?。排列顺序为先列英文文献，后列中文文献(如有中文参考文献的话)。英文文献使用英文标点符号，而中文文献则应使用中文标点符号。
　　1.著作类文献的基本格式
　　(1)独立作者的文献的格式
　　[序号]+空格+姓名(英文：作者姓+逗号+空格+作者名字的首字母)+点+空格+(出版年代)+点+专著名称(英文斜体)+[参考文献标识]+点+空格+出版地点+冒号+空格+出版公司+点。英文书名的每个单词(冠词和介词除外，除非在句首)的首字母都要大写，标点一律用西文标点。
　　中文文献的格式为：[序号]+空格+作者姓名+空格+(出版年代)+句号+专著名称(须加书名号)+[参考文献标识]+句号+出版地点+冒号+空格+出版公司+句号。
　　[1] 陈福康(2000)。《中国译学理论史稿》[M]。上海: 上海外语教育出版社。
　　[2] Booth, C.(1983). The Rhetoric of Fiction [M]. England: Penguin Books.
　　(2)同一作者同年出版的两种或两种以上的文献
　　[3] 周兆祥 (1996a)。《翻译人与人生》[M]。香港: 商务印书馆。
　　[4] 周兆祥 (1996b)。《翻译初阶》[M]。香港: 商务印书馆。
　　[5] Newmark, P.(1988a). Approaches to Translation [M]. London: Prentice
　　Hall International Ltd..
　　[6] Newmark, P.(1988b). A Textbook of Translation [M]. London: Prentice
　　Hall International Ltd..
　　(3)两位、三位作者的文献
　　两位、三位作者的文献,英文的后两位作者姓名之间用&连接;使用中文时，两名作者之间使用“和”连接。
　　[7] 顾嘉祖、陆升、郑立信(1990)。《语言与 文化 》[M]。上海: 上海外语教
　　育出版社。
　　[8] Fabb, N.,& Durant.A.(2003).How to Write Essays, Dissertations and
　　Theses in Literary Studies [M]. 成都：四川大学出版社.
　　(4)三位作者以上的文献
　　三位作者以上的文献，只需标出第一位作者，英文文献中其他作者用et al.来代替;中文文献中其他作者用“等”来代替。
　　[9] 李学平等(1982)。《当代 英语 语法概论》[M]。北京: 北京师范大学出版社。
　　[10] Quirk,R. et al.(1985).A Comprehensive Grammar of the English
　　Language [M]. London: Longman Group Ltd.
　　(5)一书多册的文献
　　在书名之后标出第几册或第几卷。
　　[11] 张道真 (1983)。《现代英语用法词典》(第5册)[M]。上海: 上海译文出
　　版社。
　　[12] Blotner, J.(1974). Faulkner: A Biography (Vol.2) [M]. New York:
　　Random.
　　(6)翻译著作
　　在书名后标出译者，英文在译者名后加Trans;中文则在译者名后加“译”。
　　[13] 斯威夫特(1991)。《格列佛游记》(马祥文译)[M]。台北: 台湾麦克出版社。
　　[14] Calvino, I. (1986). The Uses of Literature (P.Creagh, Trans.) [M].
　　San Diego: Harcourt.
　　(7)作者是机构
　　作者就写机构名称。
　　[15] 高等学校外语学刊研究会(1996)。《外国语言研究论文索引》(1990-1994)
　　[Z]。上海: 上海外语教育出版社。
　　[16] American Library Association.(1983). Intellectual Freedom Manual
　　[Z]. Chicago: ALA.
　　(8)工具书格式
　　工具书格式相同。
　　[17] 舆水优、大川完三郎、佐藤富士雄等 (2000)。《朗文汉英中华文化图解
　　词典》[Z]。上海: 上海外语教育出版社。
　　(9) 没有作者的文献
　　当一部作品没有作者时，没有作者就不用写作者。当某作品的作者列为“Anonymous”、中文使用“匿名”或“无名氏”时，在参考文献页，英文按字母顺序排列Anonymous这个字，中文用拼音顺序排列“匿名”或“无名氏”。
　　[18] The Oxford English Dictionary [Z].(1989).Oxford: Herndon Press.
　　[19] Anonymous. (2002). Teaching research, researching teaching [M].New
　　York: Alpine Press.
　　(10)更新版的书籍
　　[20] Bollinger, D.L. (1975). Aspects of Language (2nd ed.)[M].New York:
　　Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
　　(11) 论文集全书
　　英文如果只有一个编者，用Ed.;如果有两个或两个以上的编者，则用Eds.; 中文在作者后面加“(编)”或“(主编)”。
　　[21] 杨自俭、李瑞华(主编)(1990)。《英汉对比研究论文集》[C]。上海：
　　上海外语教育出版社。
　　[22] Abrams, M. H. (Ed.).(1986). The Norton Anthology of English
　　Literature (Vol.2) [C]. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.
　　[23] Bublitz, W., Lenk, U. & Ventola, E. (Eds.).(1988). Coherence in
　　Spoken and Written Discourse [C]. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publication Company.
　　2、文章类
　　(1)学术期刊文章
　　英文参考文献所必要的信息包括：作者的姓氏，名字和中间名字(若有的话)的大写字母. (出版年份). 论文标题(英文正体)[参考文献标识]. 杂志名称(使用斜体), 卷号, 所引页的页码.
　　注意：英文期刊每期均是起于第一页，在卷号后面用括号带数字标出期号。若不清楚出版日期，括号中写上“n.d”(即无日期)。同时要注意标点符号，姓氏之后是逗号“，”，名字字母之后是英文句号圆点“.”，年份带括号及圆点“.”，论文标题之后是圆点“.”，杂志名之后是逗号“，”，卷号及期号之后是逗号“，”，
　　页码之后是圆点“.”。
　　中文参考文献所必要的信息包括：作者的姓名(出版年份)。论文标题[参考文献标识]。《杂志名称》，卷号，所引页页码。
　　注意：中文期刊如果没有卷号的，用阿拉伯数字标出期号。若不清楚出版日期，括号中写上“无日期”。
　　同样要注意标点符号，姓名之后接年份带括号，之后是句号“。”，论文标题及其[参考文献标识]之后是句号“。”，杂志名之后是逗号“，”，卷号或期号之后是逗号“，”，页码之后是句号“。”。
　　[1] 蒋骁华(2003)。巴西的翻译:“吃人”翻译理论与实践及其文化内涵[J]。
　　《外国语》41(1)， 63-67。
　　[2] Hewitt, A.(1984). Technical services in 1983 [J]. Library Resources
　　and Technical Services, 28(3)， 205-218.
　　(2)引用论文集
　　引用论文集中的文章时，参考书目要提供以下信息：作者.(出版年代).文章名称(英文正体)[参考文献标识].英文文献使用“In ”，之后接编者名的字母及姓氏，这一顺序与单独引用时不同;论文集名称(英文斜体) [参考文献标识], 所引文章的起始页码用圆括号标于书名之后。出版地点:出版机构.
　　中文文献则须提供：作者 (出版年代)。文章名称[参考文献标识]、中文文献在论文标题之后使用“载于”, 之后接编者之姓名, 《论文集名称》(须加书名号) [参考文献标识]。所引文章的起始页码用圆括号标于书名之后。出版地点:出版机构。
　　[3] 方梦之(1990)。加强对比语言学的研究[A]。载于杨自俭, 李瑞华(编)，《英
　　汉对比研究论文集》[C](79-85页)。 上海: 上海外语出版社。
　　[4] Searle, R. Metaphor [A].(1979). In Ortony, A. (Ed.), Metaphor
　　and Thought [C](pp.72-123). Cambridge: Cambridge University
　　Press.
　　(3)报纸文章
　　报纸文章需提供出版日期,没有署名的文章，如社论，不用写作者。
　　[5] 吴天 (2000,10月23日)。外来语与我国文化的冲突[N]。《羊城日报》, 第
　　4版。
　　[6] 王树人(2002，4月3日)。文化会通的 历史 之镜:评中国与欧洲早期宗教和哲
　　学交流史[N]。《中华读书报》，第5页。
　　[7] Darst, J. (1998, May 25). Environmentalists want hotels, concessions
　　removed from US parks [N]. Boston Globe, pp.B1,B6.
　　[8] Young, Gifted, Black - and Inspired [N].(1988,May 18). Editorial.
　　Washington Post, p.20.
　　(4)学术会 议论文
　　引用学术会议上发表的论文时，论文标题使用斜体字。论文标题之后表明该学术会议的名称及论文发表的形式，英文论文使用“Presented at”或“Poster at”字样，中文论文使用“宣讲论文”或“张贴论文”字样。再之后是会议举办的地点(通常是城市)，以及月份时间。
　　[9] Lei L. & Wang L.(2000). The difference of self-regulated learning between LD
　　and non-LD students [R]. Poster at the Second International Conference on Child and Adolescent Mental Health. Kuala Lumpur, June.
　　[10] Jochens, J.(1992). Gender Equality in Law: The Case of Medieval Iceland[R].
　　Presented at the 26th Annual Conference of the Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, Binghamton, New York, October.
　　(5)未发表的学位论文或手稿
　　引用学位论文时要注明是出版或是未出版的学位论文以及授予学位的机构。
　　[11] Cheng, X. (2003). A Functional Approach to Discourse Coherence [D].
　　Unpublished PhD dissertation, Beijing Normal University.
　　[12] 雷雳(1999)。《亲子沟通与 儿童 行为问题的关系》。未发表手稿，首都师范
　　大学。
　　3、非印刷材料
　　(l)电影、电视、广播等
　　电影、电视、广播、幻灯、录像、录音、艺术品等的基本格式是导演(或制作者)姓名、年份(或播出日期)、片名(或节目名)、出品地(或播出台和播出地)。
　　[1] 张艺谋(导演)(1998)。我的父亲母亲[电影]。北京。
　　[2] Taylor,C., Cleveland, R., & Andries, L.(Producers). (2002). Six feet
　　under [Television Series]. New York: HBO.
　　[3] Brandt, F. (Producer) & Messina, P. E. (Director). (1985). Too Smart
　　for Strangers [Videotapes]. Burbank, CA: Walt Disney Home Video.
　　(2)电子文献
　　引用电子文献时，尽可能参照参考书目的基本格式，同时提供所引文献所主要责任者、电子文献题名、电子文献的出处或可获得地址，发表或更新日期,。英文文献使用“Retrieved …, from …”，后面接网址;中文文献使用“获取资料于…来自互联网：”或者“来自因特网：”，冒号后面接网址。另外，论文(或资料)的标题使用斜体字。
　　[4] Dewey, R. (1996). APA publication manual crib sheet [OL]. Retrieved January 8, [5] Anderson, D. (2002, May 1). Social Constructionism and Moos [OL]. Retrieved
　　August 6, 2002, from
　　[6] Office of the U.S. Trade Representative. (1999). North American Free Trade
　　Agreement [OL]. Retrieved October 25, 2000, from
　　[7] Wissink, J.A. (2000). Techniques of smoking cessation among teens and adults
　　[J/OL]. Adolescent Medicine, 2. Retrieved August 16, 2002, from
　　[8] 万锦坤 (1996)。《中国大学学报论文文摘(1983-1993)英文版》[DB/CD]。
　　北京: 中国大 百科 全书出版社。
　　[9] 王明亮 (1998,8月16日)。关于中 国学 术期刊标准化数据库系统工程的进
　　4.其他文献
　　(1)专利
　　引用专利需提供所有者、专利题名、专利国别、专利号、出版日期。
　　[11] 姜锡洲(1989,7月26日)。一种温热外敷药制备方案[P]。中国专利:
　　881056073。
　　(2) 国际 、国家标准
　　国际、国家标准，需提供标准编号，标准名称。
　　[12] GB/T16159-1996, 汉语拼音正词法基本规则[S]。
　　(3)政府文件
　　政府文件需提供文件出台时间
　　[13] 中华人民共和国香港特别行政区基本法[Z] (1991)。香港: 三联书店有限
　　公司。
　　[14] National Institute of Mental Health. (1982). Television and Behavior:
　　Ten Years of Scientific Progress and Implications for the Eighties
　　[Z]. (DHHS Publication No. ADM 82-1195). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

有谁知道里根在中国人民大会堂的演讲“the future is ours to build”的英文和中文译文？

里根曾在人民大会堂说，我们可能是分处在地球的两极，双方的语言，习惯和政治信仰可能有很大不同，但是，美国人民和中国人民没有什么不同。里根说，如果问世界上任何一个地方的人，他们想给子孙后来留下些什么，那么，他们不管是用什么语言，不管是英语还是汉语，还是其它任何语言，他们肯定都会这样回答的：我们希望和平，希望自由，希望更美好的生活。里根说，我们可以平等合作，互敬互惠。我赞同中国人的说法：互敬互惠。
http://www.ovnz.com/bbs/dispbbs.asp?BoardID=9&id=847
里根在人民大会堂的演讲是一篇长篇演讲。这一段话可以看作是整个演讲的“楔子”。在楔子里，里根首先对演讲主持人及听众表示敬意。对东道国表示赞叹，对东道国的古老文化表示理解。这都是礼貌礼节上要求讲述的话。这样一番话，很快使本来陌生的冰冷的气氛融化开来。演讲人与听众之间的情感的桥梁也就架起来了。
继这番之后，里根总统接着说：
12年前，前总统尼克松来到北京，他走下空军一号专机同周恩来总理握手，事后周恩来总理告诉他：
“你那次握手，是从世界上最浩瀚的大洋彼岸伸过来的手，是经过25年的完全隔绝之后伸过来的手。”
从那次握手开始，美国和中国都打开了自己历史上新的一页。我认为现在历史又在召唤了。
这番话可以看作整个演讲的引子，楔子架起了情感的桥梁，引子就要毫不迟疑地把演讲引入正题了。里根总统在这里以回忆尼克松与周恩来第一次握手这个有深远意义的历史镜头，把演说引入正题，转折得体、恰当、自然。
里根总统这次演说的开场，是一种很典型、很规范的开场。它包含了下列必不可少的因素：得体礼貌的称呼。②以愉快的心情提及演讲的地点。③以赞赏的口吻提及听众深感自豪的东西。④表示对听众们的文化背景有浓厚的兴趣。⑤回忆双方都感到愉快的事件。并以此引出正文。
http://218.24.233.167:8000/Resource/Book/Edu/SZJY/TS014006/0005_ts014006.htm
http://www.baidu.com/s?wd=12%C4%EA%C7%B0%A3%AC%C7%B0%D7%DC%CD%B3%C4%E1%BF%CB%CB%C9%C0%B4%B5%BD%B1%B1%BE%A9%A3%AC%CB%FB%D7%DF%CF%C2%BF%D5%BE%FC%D2%BB%BA%C5%D7%A8%BB%FA%CD%AC%D6%DC%B6%F7%C0%B4&cl=3
里根曾在人民大会堂说，我们可能是分处在地球的两极，双方的语言，习惯和政治信仰可能有很大不同，但是，美国人民和中国人民没有什么不同。里根说，如果问世界上任何一个地方的人，他们想给子孙后来留下些什么，那么，他们不管是用什么语言，不管是英语还是汉语，还是其它任何语言，他们肯定都会这样回答的：我们希望和平，希望自由，希望更美好的生活。里根说，我们可以平等合作，互敬互惠。我赞同中国人的说法：互敬互惠。
http://www.ovnz.com/bbs/dispbbs.asp?BoardID=9&id=847
里根在人民大会堂的演讲是一篇长篇演讲。这一段话可以看作是整个演讲的“楔子”。在楔子里，里根首先对演讲主持人及听众表示敬意。对东道国表示赞叹，对东道国的古老文化表示理解。这都是礼貌礼节上要求讲述的话。这样一番话，很快使本来陌生的冰冷的气氛融化开来。演讲人与听众之间的情感的桥梁也就架起来了。
继这番之后，里根总统接着说：
12年前，前总统尼克松来到北京，他走下空军一号专机同周恩来总理握手，事后周恩来总理告诉他：
“你那次握手，是从世界上最浩瀚的大洋彼岸伸过来的手，是经过25年的完全隔绝之后伸过来的手。”
从那次握手开始，美国和中国都打开了自己历史上新的一页。我认为现在历史又在召唤了。
这番话可以看作整个演讲的引子，楔子架起了情感的桥梁，引子就要毫不迟疑地把演讲引入正题了。里根总统在这里以回忆尼克松与周恩来第一次握手这个有深远意义的历史镜头，把演说引入正题，转折得体、恰当、自然。
里根总统这次演说的开场，是一种很典型、很规范的开场。它包含了下列必不可少的因素：得体礼貌的称呼。②以愉快的心情提及演讲的地点。③以赞赏的口吻提及听众深感自豪的东西。④表示对听众们的文化背景有浓厚的兴趣。⑤回忆双方都感到愉快的事件。并以此引出正文。
http://218.24.233.167:8000/Resource/Book/Edu/SZJY/TS014006/0005_ts014006.htm
很抱歉,只能找到这么多.
原版的讲话在这里 ,但是我没办法打开"PDF"格式的文件,郁闷. :(
http://www.baidu.com/s?wd=12%C4%EA%C7%B0%A3%AC%C7%B0%D7%DC%CD%B3%C4%E1%BF%CB%CB%C9%C0%B4%B5%BD%B1%B1%BE%A9%A3%AC%CB%FB%D7%DF%CF%C2%BF%D5%BE%FC%D2%BB%BA%C5%D7%A8%BB%FA%CD%AC%D6%DC%B6%F7%C0%B4&cl=3
Remarks to Chinese Community Leaders in Beijing, China
April 27, 1984
Thank you very much, Dr. Zhou Peiyuan, and all of you distinguished ladies and gentlemen. I'm honored to come before you today, the first American President ever to address your nation from the Great Hall of the People.
My wife, Nancy, and I have looked forward to visiting the people and treasures of your great and historic land, one of the world's oldest civilizations. We have marveled at Beijing's sweeping vistas, and we have felt the warmth of your hospitality touch our hearts. We only regret that our visit will be so brief. I'm afraid it will be as a Tang Dynasty poet once wrote, ``looking at the flowers while riding horseback.'' But you have another saying from the book of Han which describes how Nancy and I feel: ``To see a thing once is better than hearing about it a hundred times.''
Twelve years ago former President Nixon arrived in Beijing, stepped down from Air Force One, and shook hands with former Premier Zhou Enlai. Premier Zhou would later tell him, ``Your handshake came over the vastest ocean in the world -- 25 years of no communication.'' With one handshake, America and China each turned a new page in their histories.
I believe that history beckons again. We have begun to write a new chapter for peace and progress in our histories with America and China going forward hand in hand -- xieshou bingjin [walk together hand in hand].
We must always be realistic about our relationship, frankly acknowledging the fundamental differences in ideology and institutions between our two societies. Yes, let us acknowledge those differences. Let us never minimize them. But let us not be dominated by them.
I have not come to China to hold forth on what divides us, but to build on what binds us. I have not come to dwell on a closed-door past, but to urge that Americans and Chinese look to the future, because together we can and will make tomorrow a better day.
When Premier Zhao was in the United States, he told us, ``China has opened its door and will never close it again.'' Permit me to assure you today, America's door is open to you, and when you walk through, we'll welcome you as our neighbors and our friends.
We may live at nearly opposite ends of the world. We may be distinctly different in language, customs, and political beliefs. But on many vital questions of our time, there is little difference between the American and Chinese people. Indeed, I believe if we were to ask citizens all over this world what they desire most for their children, and for their children's children, their answer, in English, Chinese, or any language, would likely be the same: We want peace. We want freedom. We want a better life. Their dreams, so simply stated, represent mankind's deepest aspirations for security and personal fulfillment. And helping them make their dreams come true is what our jobs are all about.
We can work together as equals in a spirit of mutual respect and mutual benefit. I believe in Chinese you say hu jing hu hui.
Well, America and China are both great nations. And we have a special responsibility to preserve world peace.
To help fulfill that responsibility, the United States is rebuilding its defenses, which had been neglected for more than a decade. Our people realize this effort is crucial if we're to deter aggression against America, our allies, and other friends. But we threaten no nation. America's troops are not massed on China's borders. And we occupy no lands. The only foreign land we occupy anywhere in the world is beneath gravesites where Americans shed their blood for peace and freedom. Nor do we commit wanton acts, such as shooting 269 innocent people out of the sky for the so-called cause of sacred airspace.
America and China both condemn military expansionism, the brutal occupation of Afghanistan, the crushing of Kampuchea; and we share a stake in preserving peace on the Korean peninsula.
I think our two peoples agree there can be only one sane policy to preserve our precious civilization in this modern nuclear age: A nuclear war cannot be won and must never be fought. And that's why we've proposed to the Soviet Union meaningful negotiations that go beyond rhetoric to actual arms reductions and why we must all work for the day when nuclear weapons will be banished from the face of the Earth.
America's interest in China, our friendship for your people, and our respect for China's many contributions to the progress of civilization date back to the beginning of our own history. You might be interested to know that personal dinner settings used by our first three Presidents -- George Washington, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson -- were of Chinese origin, evidence of our Founding Fathers attraction for your country's high artistic standards.
Back in 1784, when the first American trading ship, the Empress of China, entered your waters, my country was unknown to you. We were a new republic, eager to win a place in international commerce. A slightly homesick American sailor recorded that first day in a letter home.
``My dear father,'' he wrote, ``if ever you receive this letter, it will acquaint you, that after a passage of 6 months and 7 days we came to anchor at Wampoo . . . The Chinese had never heard of us, but we introduced ourselves as a new nation, gave them our history with a description of our country, the importance and necessity of a trade here to the advantage of both, which they appear perfectly to understand and wish.''
Well, since those early days, our countries have both profited from the exchange of people, goods, and ideas. Chinese settlers helped tame our continent during the 19th century. Today their families' descendants join other Americans in cooperating with you to build a new prosperity in China.
How did America, which began as an impoverished country and a melting pot, attracting immigrants from every corner of the globe, pull together and become the leading economic nation in the world? How did we go in so short a time from living by candlelight to exploring the frontiers of the universe by satellite, from each farmer laboring with horse and hoe for an entire year just to feed four people, to running his farm with the most modern machinery and producing enough to feed 75 people, making America the breadbasket of the world?
Well, we're people who've always believed the heritage of our past is the seed that brings forth the harvest of our future. And from our roots we have drawn tremendous power from two great forces: faith and freedom. America was founded by people who sought freedom to worship God and to trust in Him to guide them in their daily lives with wisdom, strength, goodness, and compassion.
Our passion for freedom led to the American Revolution, the first great uprising for human rights and independence against colonial rule. We knew each of us could not enjoy liberty for ourselves unless we were willing to share it with everyone else. And we knew our freedom could not truly be safe unless all of us were protected by a body of laws that treated us equally.
George Washington told us we would be bound together in a sacred brotherhood of free men. Abraham Lincoln defined the heart of American democracy when he said, ``No man is good enough to govern another man without that other's consent. . . .'' These great principles have nourished the soul of America, and they have been enriched by values such as the dignity of work, the friendship of neighbors, and the warmth of family. Like China, our people see the future in the eyes of our children. And like China, we revere our elders. To be as good as our fathers and mothers, we must be better.
``Trust the people'' -- these three words are not only the heart and soul of American history but the most powerful force for human progress in the world today. Those who ignore this vital truth will condemn their countries to fall farther and farther behind in the world's competition for economic leadership in the 1980's and beyond, because look around us, the societies that have made the most spectacular progress in the shortest period of time are not the most rigidly organized nor even the richest in natural resources. No, it's where people have been allowed to create, compete, and build, where they've been permitted to think for themselves, make economic decisions, and benefit from their own risks, that societies have become the most prosperous, progressive, dynamic, and free. Nothing could be more basic to the spirit of progress for a farmer, laborer, or merchant than economic reward for legitimate risk and honest toil.
A little over a century ago, Ulysses S. Grant, who was then a former President, visited your country and saw China's great potential. ``I see dawning . . .'' Grant wrote, ``the beginning of a change. When it does come, China will rapidly become a powerful and rich nation . . . The population is industrious, frugal, intelligent, and quick to learn.''
Well, today, China's economy crackles with the dynamics of change: expansion of individual incentives for farmers in your new responsibility system; new bonuses for workers and more disciplined management in terms of profits and losses; improved methods of market distribution; opening your economy to the world through China's membership in the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and through your invitation to trade and invest, especially in your four Special Economic Zones; and your commitment to attract capital and scientific knowledge to create a high technology base for the future. All this reflects China's new role in the international economic community and your determination to modernize your economy and raise the standard of living of your people.
Unlike some governments which fear change and fear the future, China is beginning to reach out toward new horizons, and we salute your courage.
``Progress,'' Premier Zhao has told us, ``lies in our efforts to emancipate our thinking in a bold way -- to carry out reform with determination, to make new inventions with courage, and to break with the economic molds and conventions of all descriptions which fetter the development of the productive force.'' Well, we Americans have always considered ourselves pioneers, so we appreciate such vitality and optimism.
Today I bring you a message from my countrymen. As China moves forward in this new path, America welcomes the opportunity to walk by your side.
Incidentally, I know Premier Zhao has demonstrated mastery of his subject. When he was directing agricultural policies in Sichuan, the peasants went from food shortages and forced imports to bumper harvests and rising exports. In fact, I'm told that because of the work he did, it is said in Sichuan Province, ``If you want rice, go see Zhao.''
Well, China's growth is in China's hands. You will choose your own path to development. But we're not surprised to see the fresh breezes of incentives and innovation sweeping positive changes across China. And behind the statistics of economic growth are reports of personal success stories pointing to a new spirit of progress. Chairman Deng has a saying, ``Seek truth from facts.'' Well, today in China, the reality of more small enterprises doing a thriving business, more families profiting from their own hard work and the bigger harvests they produce, and more investment in science and technology points to more opportunity for all. President John Kennedy often used a metaphor to describe such progress: ``A rising tide lifts all boats.''
In the United States, as I mentioned earlier, we've always believed deeply that incentives are key and that free people build free markets that ignite dynamic development for everyone. For a time, America's government had drifted away from this key principle, and our economic growth suffered.
When we took office, in January 1981, we said to the people, ``Let us make a new beginning. From now on, if you work harder and earn more than before, your reward will be greater than it was. We're putting America's future in your hands. You can spark the spirit of enterprise. You can get America moving again.'' And they have.
In 3 short years, the American people have revived a dynamic growth economy bolstered by incentives of lower tax rates, stable prices, reduced interest rates, a rebirth of productivity, and restored confidence in our currency.
Hope is high. Confidence is strong. America's future looks bright again. With a strong technological base, pioneering sunrise industries and modernizing older ones, the United States is beginning an economic renaissance and helping pull other nations toward worldwide recovery.
I see America and our Pacific neighbors going forward in a mighty enterprise to build strong economies and a safer world.
The United States and China have an historic opportunity. We can expand our economic and scientific cooperation, strengthen the ties between our peoples, and take an important step toward peace and a better life. And there is much we can share.
We think progress in four areas is particularly promising: trade, technology, investment, and exchanges of scientific and managerial expertise.
In a few short years, two-way trade has risen sharply. The United States is now China's third largest trading partner. Our bilateral trade shows great promise for the future, particularly in areas such as machinery, technology, oil equipment, petroleum, agricultural and manufacturing products.
Last June, I instructed our government to liberalize controls over the export to China of high technology products, such as computers and laboratory instruments. Our policies on technology transfer will continue to evolve along with our overall relationship and the development of broader cooperation between us. May I emphasize to the members of the scientific community here today: The relaxing of export controls reflects my determination that China be treated as a friendly, nonallied nation and that the United States be fully prepared to cooperate in your modernization.
During Premier Zhao's visit to our country, we took another step forward, signing the United States-China Industrial and Technological Cooperation Accord. Our Joint Commission on Commerce and Trade will discuss implementation of the Accord during their next meeting in Washington in May. We will focus our efforts on the sectors to which China has attached greatest priority. Our trade and development program will facilitate our progress.
Expanding cooperative ventures is another area of promising growth: American firms have invested almost $700 million in joint ventures and offshore oil exploration in China, making the United States your largest foreign investor. We welcome your determination to improve conditions for foreign business in China. Streamlining bureaucratic procedures, establishing a more predictable system for investment through domestic legislation and international agreements, reforming prices to make them internationally competitive, and providing foreign business people with the offices, housing, and schools they and their families need to work effectively, will stimulate more American investment.
For your part, some 50 Chinese firms have established offices or branches in the United States, and China has invested in several joint ventures in our country.
We intend to strengthen these trends. When Treasury Secretary Regan was here last month for the meeting of the Joint Economic Committee, he concluded a bilateral tax agreement. Monday, our two countries will sign this agreement, which, I'm pleased to report, will increase incentives for even closer cooperation between American and Chinese firms. And we're continuing to work toward conclusion of bilateral agreements on greater investment protection and many other areas of cooperation.
I am particularly proud that the United States and China have reached agreement on cooperation in the peaceful uses of atomic energy. As many of you know, the negotiations between our two countries go back almost to the beginning of my administration. We have held a total of six sessions in Washington and Beijing. We made great progress during Premier Zhao's visit, and our negotiations have just now concluded successfully. The result: an agreement for cooperation in peaceful uses of nuclear energy.
I understand that several of the people here made major contributions to this effort, which meets the requirements of both sides. Once approval is complete, it will open broad opportunities for joint work in development of the energy base which China needs for her modernization. Scientists, engineers, business leaders, and officials of both countries interested in peaceful nuclear energy will welcome this agreement. China has one of the world's most ambitious programs for expansion of electric power generation, and I believe that America's energy technology -- not just in nuclear energy but across the board -- is second to none, and perhaps most suitable for China's varied needs.
Our agreement is founded on important nonproliferation standards. We have noticed recent statements of China's nonproliferation policies, particularly those by Premier Zhao in Washington and Beijing over the past several months. Premier Zhao and I have discussed these matters directly. I can tell you that our countries share the same basic principles of preserving world peace and preventing the destabilizing spread of nuclear explosives. Neither of us will encourage proliferation nor assist any other country to acquire or develop any nuclear explosive device. Our cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy will be based on shared principles of nonproliferation.
There is also great potential in our joint efforts to increase managerial and scientific expertise. I know that many of you have heard through the Chinese press about the good work of the 9-month Dalian program of management training for industry, science, and technology. More than 750 graduates have received training in modern methods of industrial management. And I'm told some of you are graduates of that program. Well, I'm delighted to announce that we have agreed to establish a special new program there offering a full 3-year master's degree in business administration. The degree will be awarded by the State University of New York. We're to share with you the knowledge that is America's key technology -- management and science skills to develop a nation.
Under our Joint Commission on Science and Technology, we have a very productive agreement with exchange programs in 21 specific areas. We're sharing the benefits of research in medicine, energy, and other technical fields. Our scientists are learning a great deal from each other in public health, agricultural sciences, and many other areas.
由于回复限制字数，未完

美国大致历史

http://www.usembassy-china.org.cn/infousa/OutAmHis/GB/Contents.htm（中文的）
【英文的】
History of the United States
This article is part of
the U.S. History
series.
Native Americans in the United States
Colonial America
1776–1789
1789–1849
1849–1865
1865–1918
1918–1945
1945–1964
1964–1980
1980–1987
1988–present
Timeline · The United States is a country occupying part of the North American continent ranging from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean and including outlying areas as well. The first inhabitants of the area now claimed by the United States arrived at least 12,000 years ago, probably by crossing the Bering land bridge into Alaska. Relatively little is known of these early settlers compared to the Europeans who colonized the area after the first voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492. Columbus' men were also the first known Old Worlders to land in the territory of the United States when they arrived in Puerto Rico the next year on their second voyage; the first European known to set foot in the continental U.S. was Juan Ponce de León, who arrived in Florida in 1513, though he may have been preceded by John Cabot in 1497.
Contents [hide]
1 Pre-Colonial America
2 Early European settlements
3 Colonial America (1493-1776)
4 Formation of the United States (1776-1789)
5 Westward Expansion (1789–1849)
6 Civil War Era (1849–1865)
7 Reconstruction and the Rise of Industrialization (1865–1918)
8 Post World War I and the Great Depression (1918–1940)
9 Homefront: World War II (1940-1945)
10 Cold War Beginnings and the Civil Rights Movement (1945–1964)
11 Cold War (1964–1980)
12 End of the Cold War (1980–1988)
13 Modern Era (1988–present)
14 See also
15 Literature
16 External links
[edit]
Pre-Colonial America
Main articles: Native Americans in the United States and Pre-Columbian
Monk's Mound in Cahokia, Illinois, at 100 feet high is the largest man-made earthen mound in North America, was part of a city which had thousands of people around 1050 ADArcheologists believe that the present-day United States was first populated by people migrating from Asia via the Bering land bridge sometime between 50,000 and 11,000 years ago.[1] These people became the indigenous people who inhabited the Americas prior to the arrival of European explorers in the 1400s and who are now called Native Americans.
Many cultures thrived in the Americas before Europeans came, including the Puebloans (Anasazi) in the southwest and the Adena Culture in the east. Several such societies and communities, over time, intensified this practice of established settlements, and grew to support sizeable and concentrated populations. Agriculture was independently developed in what is now the eastern United States as early as 2500 BC, based on the domestication of indigenous sunflower, squash and goosefoot.[2] Eventually, the Mexican crops of maize and legumes were adapted to the shorter summers of eastern North America and replaced the indigenous crops.
[edit]
Early European settlements
One recorded European exploration of the Americas was by Christopher Columbus in 1492, sailing on behalf of the King and Queen of Spain. He did not reach mainland America until his fourth voyage, almost 20 years after his first voyage. He first landed on Haiti, where the Arawaks, whom he mistook for people of the Indies (thus, "Indians") greeted him and his fleet by swimming out to their ships with gifts and food. Columbus, after island-hopping for several months, heard nothing of gold, his main drive for the voyage. However, he realized that a great market of slavery could be made with these populations. By 1550, there were only 500 Arawaks left; about 250,000 Indians on Haiti had died from murder or suicide.
After a period of exploration by various European countries, Dutch, Spanish, English, French, Swedish, and Portuguese settlements were established. Columbus was the first European to set foot in U.S. territory when he came to Puerto Rico in 1493; the oldest remaining European settlements in the U.S. are San Juan, Puerto Rico, founded 1521, and on the mainland, St. Augustine in what is now the state of Florida, founded in 1565.
In the 15th century, Spaniards and other Europeans brought horses to the Americas. The introduction of the horse had a profound impact on Native American culture in the Great Plains of North America. The horse offered revolutionary speed and efficiency, both while hunting and in battle. The horse also became a sort of currency for native tribes and nations. Horses became a pivotal part in solidifying social hierarchy, expanding trade areas with neighboring tribes, and creating a stereotype both to their advantage and against it.
[edit]
Colonial America (1493-1776)
The Mayflower, which transported Pilgrims to the New World, arrived in 1620.
Territorial expansion of the United States, omitting Oregon and other claims.Main article: Colonial America
In 1607, the Virginia Company of London established the Jamestown Settlement on the James River, both named after King James IColonial America was defined by ongoing battles between mainly English-speaking colonists and Natives, by a severe labor shortage that gave birth to forms of unfree labor such as slavery and indentured servitude, and by a British policy of benign neglect (salutary neglect) that permitted the development of an American spirit distinct from that of its European founders.
The first truly successful English colony was established in 1607, on the James River near the Chesapeake Bay. The Virginia Company of London financed the purchase of three ships to transport settlers to the Virginia colony. The names of the three ships were The Susan Constant, Godspeed and the Discovery. The leader of the group was Captain Christopher Newport. Also on board was John Smith, an explorer, soldier, and writer. King James decided to give the Virginia Company a charter for the settlement. The settlers sought a location which had fresh water, deep water to dock their ships, and was easy to defend. The settlement was named Jamestown after the king. England also wanted to find gold, silver and other riches in North America.
As increasing numbers of settlers arrived in Virginia, many conflicts arose between the Native Americans and the colonists. The colonists increasingly appropriated land to farm and grow tobacco. This was the beginning of a general trend towards displacing Native Americans westward to make room for settlers. [1]
One example of conflict between Native Americans and English settlers was the 1622 Powhatan uprising in Virginia, in which Indians had killed hundreds of English settlers. The largest conflict between Native Americans and English settlers in the 17th century was King Philip's War in New England. [2]
Differences of language, religion and culture also contributed to the friction between the two groups. At the base of the friction was an assumption by the English colonists of racial, cultural and moral superiority. [3]
[Subject Matter: Technology, the Body, and Science on the Anglo-American Frontier, 1500-1676. By Joyce E. Chaplin . (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001] [John Wood Sweet. Bodies Politic - Negotiating Race in the American North, 1730-1830. Johns Hopkins University Press]
New England was founded by two separate groups of religious dissenters. A second group of colonists called the Puritans established the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629. The Middle Colonies, consisting of the present-day states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware, were characterized by a large degree of diversity. The first attempted English settlement south of Virginia was the Province of Carolina, with Georgia Colony the last of the Thirteen Colonies established in 1733.
Spain claimed or controlled a large part of what is now the central and western United States as part of New Spain which included Spanish Florida, California and Texas. In 1682, French explorer Sieur de La Salle explored the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, and claimed the entire territory as far south as the Gulf of Mexico, which became New France. The Louisiana Territory, under Spanish control since the end of the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), remained off-limits to settlement from the 13 American colonies. The colonies of East Florida, West Florida, Grenada, and Quebec, added to Great Britain by the Treaty of Paris (1763), were part of British North America open to travel, and during the revolutionay war many Loyalists fled to them.
These are historic regions of the United States, meaning regions that were legal entities in the past, or which the average modern American would no longer immediately recognize as a regional description.
[edit]
Formation of the United States (1776-1789)
Washington's crossing of the Delaware, one of America's first successes in the Revolutionary war
The presentation of the Declaration of IndependenceMain article: History of the United States (1776-1789)
During this period the United States won its independence from Great Britain with help from France in the American War of Independence, or the American Revolutionary War as it is called in Great-Britain, and the thirteen former colonies established themselves as the United States of America under the Articles of Confederation.
On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress, still meeting in Philadelphia declared the independence of the United States in a remarkable document, the Declaration of Independence, primarily authored by Thomas Jefferson. Although it is said that Morocco was the first country in the World to officialy recognize the newly sovereign United States in 1777 it was the Dutch Governor Johannes de Graaff which fired a 11 gun salute when a US war ship called Andrew Doria flying the flag of the new United States sailed into Gallows Bay of St. Eustatius, part of the Netherlands Antilles, on November 16 1776, and the Netherlands became the first foreign country (de facto) to recognize the United States. The Moroccan-American Treaty of Friendship stands as the U.S.'s oldest non-broken friendship treaty. Signed by John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, it has been in continuous effect since 1783.
The Boston Tea Party in 1773, often seen as the event which started the American RevolutionThe United States celebrates its founding date as July 4, 1776, when the Second Continental Congress—representing thirteen British colonies—adopted the Declaration of Independence that rejected British authority in favor of self-determination. The structure of the government was profoundly changed on March 4, 1789, when the states replaced the Articles of Confederation with the United States Constitution. The new government reflected a radical break from the normative governmental structures of the time, favoring representative, elective government with a weak executive, rather than the existing monarchial structures common within the western traditions of the time. The system borrowed heavily from enlightenment age ideas and classical western philosophy, in that a primacy was placed upon individual liberty and upon constraining the power of government through division of powers and a system of checks and balances.
The colonists' victory at Saratoga led the French into an open alliance with the United States. In 1781, a combined American and French Army, acting with the support of a French fleet, captured a large British army, led by General Cornwallis, at Yorktown, Virginia (see Siege of Yorktown). The surrender of General Cornwallis ended serious British efforts to find a military solution to their American problem.
A series of attempts to organize a movement to outline and press reforms culminated in the Congress calling the Constitutional Convention of 1787, which met in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
US growth maps
Animated: large · small
Years
1775 · 1790 · 1800 · 1810 · 1820 · 1830 · 1840 · 1850 · 1860 · 1870 · 1880 · 1900 · 1920
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[edit]
Westward Expansion (1789–1849)
Main article: History of the United States (1789–1849)
During this period, the United States government was established by its first president, George Washington, and the Louisiana Purchase, the War of 1812, the Mexican-American War, and various Indian Wars expanded and consolidated the land expanse of the United States--while largely displacing the indigenous population.
Economic growth in America per capita incomeGeorge Washington, a renowned hero of the American Revolutionary War, commander and chief of the Continental Army, and president of the Constitutional Convention, became the first President of the United States under the new U.S. Constitution. The Whiskey Rebellion in 1794, when settlers in the Monongahela Valley of western Pennsylvania protested against a federal tax on liquor and distilled drinks, was the first serious test of the federal government.
The Louisiana Purchase, in 1803, gave Western farmers use of the important Mississippi River waterway, removed the French presence from the western border of the United States, and provided U.S. settlers with vast potential for expansion. In response to continued British impressment of American sailors into the British Navy Madison had the Twelfth United States Congress— led by Southern and Western Jeffersonians — declare war on Britain in 1812. The United States and Britain came to a draw in the War of 1812, after bitter fighting that lasted until January 8, 1815. The Treaty of Ghent, officially ending the war, essentially resulted in the maintenance of the 'status quo ante bellum'; but, crucially for the U.S., saw the end of the British alliance with the Native Americans.
The Monroe Doctrine, expressed in 1823, proclaimed the United States' opinion that European powers should no longer colonize or interfere in the Americas; this was a defining moment in the foreign policy of the United States.
In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, which authorized the president to negotiate treaties that exchanged Indian tribal lands in the eastern states for lands west of the Mississippi River. This established Andrew Jackson, a military hero and president, as a cunning tyrant in regards to native populations. This Act resulted in the Chickasaw and Choctaw tribes dying en route to the West, the Creek's violent opposition and eventual defeat and the Cherokee Nation taking up farming and "civilized behavior." The Cherokees, under Jackson's presidency, were eventually pushed from their land; even after success with agriculture, trade, and the creation of the first North American Indian written language. The Indian Removal Act also directly caused the ceding of Spanish Florida and subsequently led to the many Seminole Wars.
US territorial growth, 1810-1920Mexico refused to accept the annexation of Texas in 1845, and war broke out in 1846. The U.S., using regulars and large numbers of volunteers, defeated Mexico, which was badly led, short on resources, and was plagued by a divided command. Public sentiment in the States was also divided, as Whigs and anti-slavery forces opposed the war. The 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ceded California, New Mexico and adjacent areas to the United States. In 1850, the issue of slavery in the new territories was settled by the Compromise of 1850 brokered by Whig Henry Clay and Democrat Stephen Douglas.
[edit]
Civil War Era (1849–1865)
The Battle of Gettysburg, the bloodiest battle and turning point of the American Civil WarMain article: History of the United States (1849–1865)
This period of United States history saw the breakdown of the ability of white Americans of the North and South to reconcile fundamental differences in their approach to government, economics, society and African American slavery. Abraham Lincoln was elected president, the South seceded to form the Confederate States of America, the Civil War followed, with the ultimate defeat of the South.
In 1854, the proposed Kansas-Nebraska Act abrogated the Missouri Compromise by providing that each new state of the Union would decide its stance on slavery. After the election of Abraham Lincoln, eleven Southern states seceded from the union between late 1860 and 1861, establishing a rebel government, the Confederate States of America on February 9, 1861.
Blue the Union; Red the ConfederacyThe Civil War began when Confederate General Pierre Beauregard opened fire upon Fort Sumter. They fired because Fort Sumter was in a confederate state. Along with the northwestern portion of Virginia, four of the five northernmost "slave states" did not secede, and became known as the Border States. Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North when General Robert E. Lee led 55,000 men of the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac River into Maryland. The Battle of Antietam near Sharpsburg, Maryland, on September 17 1862, was the bloodiest single day in American history. At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made General Ulysses S. Grant commander of all Union armies. Sherman marched from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals Joseph E. Johnston and John B. Hood. Sherman's army laid waste to about 20% of the farms in Georgia in his celebrated "March to the Sea", and reaching the Atlantic Ocean at Savannah in December 1864. Lee finally surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at Appomattox Court House.
[edit]
Reconstruction and the Rise of Industrialization (1865–1918)
General Custer's last stand in the Battle of the Little BighornMain article: History of the United States (1865–1918)
After its civil war, America experienced an accelerated rate of industrialization, mainly in the northern states. However, Reconstruction and its failure left the Southern whites in a position of firm control over its black population, denying them their Civil Rights and keeping them in a state of economic, social and political servitude. Since the late 1800s, the United States has been formally grouped amongst the Great Powers, and has also become a dominant economic force.
U.S. Federal government policy, since the James Monroe administration, had been to move the indigenous population beyond the reach of the white frontier into a series of Indian Reservations. In 1876, the last serious Sioux war erupted, when the Dakota gold rush penetrated the Black Hills.
Ellis island in 1902, the main immigration port for immigrants entering the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.An unprecedented wave of immigration to the United States served both to provide the labor for American industry and to create diverse communities in previously undeveloped areas. Native American tribes were generally forced onto small reservations as white farmers and ranchers took over their lands. Abusive industrial practices led to the often violent rise of the labor movement in the United States.
The United States began its rise to international power in this period with substantial population and industrial growth domestically, and a number of military ventures abroad, including the Spanish-American War, which began when the United States blamed the sinking of the USS Maine (ACR-1) on Spain without any real evidence.
This period was capped by the 1917 entry of the United States into World War I

参考文献

[1]谷树忠,胡咏君,周洪.生态文明建设的科学内涵与基本路径.资源科学，2013，35(1): 2～13.
[2]Daniel deB.,Jr.Richter,Mobley M.L.Monitoring earth’s critical zone.Science.2009，326(20): 1067—1068.
[3]National Research Council.New Research Opportunities in the Earth Sciences.Washington DC: National Academy Press.2012，1—117.
[4]Board on Earth Sciences and Resources,National Research Council.Basic research opportunities in earth sciences.Washington DC: National Academy Press.2001，1—154.
[5]张波,曲建升,丁永建.国际临界带研究发展回顾与美国临界带研究进展介绍.世界科技研究与发展，2010，32(5): 723～728.
[6]Brantley S.L.,Goldhaber M.B.,Ragnarsdottir K.V.Crossing disciplines and scales to understand the critical zone.Elements.2007，3: 3–7—314.
[7]Brantley S.L.,White T.S.,White A.F.et al.Frontiers in exploration of the Critical Zone: Report of a workshop sponsored by the National Science Foundation(NSF),October 24–26,2005,Dewark,DE.2006，1—30.
[8]European Commission.Thematic strategy for soil protection.COM(2006)231,Commission of the European Communities,Brussels.2006，1—12.
[9]Lin H.Earth’s critical zone and hydropedology: concepts,characteristics,and advances.Hydrology and Earth System Sciences.2010，14: 25—45.
[10]Wilkinson B.H.Humans as geologic agents: A deeptime perspective.Geology.2005，33(3): 161—164.
[11]Lin H.S.,Bouma J.,Wilding L.et al.Advances in hydropedology.Advances in Agronomy.2005，85: 1—89.
[12]Bell S.Landscape: patterns,perception and process.E＆FN Spon,Taylor ＆ Francis Group,London,UK.1999，1—337.
[13]徐芝英,胡云锋,刘越,等.空间尺度转换数据精度评价的准则和方法.地理科学进展，2012，31(12):1574～1582.
[14]Schaetzl R.J.,Anderson S.Soils: genesis and geomorphology.Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,UK.2005，1—821.
[15]杨建锋,万书勤,邓伟,等.地下水浅埋条件下包气带水和溶质运移数值模拟研究述评.农业工程学报.2005，21(6): 158～165.
[16]Salama R.B.,Otto C.J.,Fitzpatrick R.W.Contributions of groundwater conditions to soil and water salinization.Hydrogeology Journal.1999，7: 46—64
[17]Valenza A.,Grillot J.C.,Dazy J.Influence of groundwater on the degradation of irrigated soils in a semi-arid region,the inner delta of the Niger River,Mali.Hydrogeology Journal.2000，8: 417—429
[18]赵文智,程国栋.干旱区生态水文过程研究若干问题评述.科学通报，2001，46(22): 1851～1857.
[19]Sinke A.J.C.,Dury O.,Zobrist.Effects of a fluctuating water table: column study on redox dynamics and fate of some organic pollutants.Journal of Contaminant Hydrology.1998，33: 231—246
[20]Ness B.,Anderberg S.,Olsson L.Structuring problems in sustainability science: The multi-level DPSIR framework.Geoforum.2010，41(3): 479—488.
[21]Burkett V.R.,Taylor L.L.,Belnap J.,et al.U.S.Geological Survey climate and land use change science strategy——A framework for understanding and responding to global change.U.S.Geological Survey Circular 1383–A.2013，1—43.
[22]Banwart S.,Menon M.,Bernasconi S.M.,et al.Soil processes and functions across an international network of Critical Zone Observatories: Introduction to experimental methods and initial results.C.R.Geoscience.2012，344:758—772.
[23]Evenson E.J.,Orndorff R.C.,Blome C.D.,et al.U.S.Geological Survey water science strategy—Observing,understanding,predicting,and delivering water science to the Nation.U.S.Geological Survey Circular 1383–G.2013，1—49.
[24]Narasimhan T.N.Hydrogeology in North America: past and future.Hydrogeology Journal.2005，13: 7—24.
[25]Bohlen S.R.,Halley R.B.,Hickman S.H.,et al.Geology for a changing world——a science strategy for the Geologic Division of the U.S.Geological Survey,2000–2010.U.S.Geological Survey circular 2008，1172.
[26]Befus K.M.,Sheehan A.F.,Leopold M.,et al.Seismic constraints on critical zone architecture,Boulder Creek watershed,Front Range,Colorado.Vadose Zone Journal.2011，10: 915—927.
[27]Bristol R.S.,Euliss N.H.,Booth N.L.,et al.Science strategy for Core Science Systems in the U.S.Geological Survey,2013–2023.U.S.Geological Survey Open-File Report 2012–1093.2012，1—29.
[28]Holmes R.R.,Jr.Jones L.M.,Eidenshink J.C.,et al.Natural hazards science strategy: U.S.Geological Survey Open-File Report 2012–1088.2012，1—75.
[29]COM(2006)231.Thematic strategy for soil protection.Communication from the Commission to the Council,the European Parliament,the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions.2006，1—12.
[30]Banwart S.,Bernasconi S.M.,Bloem J.,et al.Soil processes and functions in critical zone observatories: hypotheses and experimental design.Vadose Zone Journal.2011，10: 974—987.
[31]Anderson S.P.,Anderson R.S.,Hinckley E.S.,et al.Exploring weathering and regolith transport controls on Critical Zone development with models and natural experiments.Applied Geochemistry.2011，26: 53—55.
[32]Anderson S.P.,von Blanckenburg F.,White A.F.Physical and chemical controls on the Critical Zone.Elements.2007，3: 315—319.
[33]Amundson R.,Richter D.D.,Humphreys G.S.,et al.Coupling between biota and earth materials in the Critical Zone.Elements.2007，3: 327—332.
[34]Anderson S.P.,Bales R.C.,Duffy C.J.Critical zone observatories: building a network to advance interdisciplinary study of earth surface processes.Mineralogical Magazine 2008，72(1): 7—10.
[35]Chorover J.,Scatena F.N.,White T.,et al.Common Critical Zone Observatory Infrastructure and Measurements.A Guide Prepared By CZO PIs,September 27,2012.1—2.
[36]Zacharias S.,Bogena H.,Samaniego L.,et al.A network of terrestrial environmental observatories in Germany.Vadose Zone Journal.2011，10: 955—973.
[37]Banwart S.Save our soils.Nature.2011，474: 151—152.
[38]Lin H.,Jan W.Hopmans D.deB.Richer.Interdisciplinary sciences in a global network of critical zone observatories.Vadose Zone Journal.2011，10: 781—785.
[39]Wang J.G.,Leung C.F.,Chow Y.K.Numerical solutions for flow in porous media.International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics.2003，27: 565—583.
[40]Xu L.,Wang Y.,Yu P.,et al.Hydrological impacts of afforestation: a case study based on simulation of TOPOG in the small watershed of Caogou in Liupan mountains,China.Journal of Resources and Ecology.2010，1(3): 202—210.
[41]Kim S.,Lee H.,Park J.Simulation of seawater intrusion range in coastal aquifer using the FEMWATER model for disaster Information.Marine Georesources ＆ Geotechnology.2012，30(3): 210—221.
[42]Lin H.Linking principles of soil formation and flow regimes.Journal of Hydrology.2010，393: 3—19.
[43]杨大文,雷慧闽,丛振涛.流域水文过程与植被相互作用研究现状评述.水利学报.2010，41(10): 1142～1149.
[44]陈腊娇,朱阿兴,秦承志,等.流域生态水文模型研究进展.地理科学进展.2011，30(5): 535～544.
[45]Ivanov V,Y.,Bras R.L.,Vivoni E.R.Vegetation-hydrology dynamics in complex terrain of semiarid areas: 1.A mechanistic approach to modeling dynamic feedbacks.Water Resources Research.2008，44: W03429.
[46]Rabbitt M.C.The United States Geological Survey: 1879–1989.U.S.Geological Survey Circular 1050.1989，1—52.
[47]U.S.Geological Survey.Facing tomorrow’s challenges—U.S.Geological Survey science in the decade 2007–2017.U.S.Geological Survey Circular 1309,2007，1—70.
[48]Craghan M.The study of human action in the physical environment.Physical Geography.2004，25(3): 251—268.
[49]Reid M.E.,LaHusen R.G.,Baum R.L.,et al.Real-time monitoring of landslides.U.S.Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2012–3008.2012，1—4.
[50]杨建锋,万书勤.美国水文地质调查发展历程及启示.资源与产业.2007，9(1): 22～26.
[51]Wieczorek G.F.,Eaton L.S.,Morgan B.A.,et al.An examination of selected historical rainfall-induced debris-flow events within the central and southern Appalachian Mountains of the Eastern United States.U.S.Geological Survey Open-File Report 2009–1155.2009，1—25.
[52]Brennan S.T.,Burruss R.C.,Merrill M.D.,et al.A probabilistic assessment methodology for the evaluation of geologic carbon dioxide storage.U.S.Geological Survey Open-File Report 2010–1127.2010，1—31.
[53]Healy R.W.Simulating water,solute,and heat transport in the subsurface with the VS2DI software package.Vadose Zone Journal.2008，7(2): 632—639.
[54]Williams B.K.,Wingard G.L.,Brewer,et al.U.S.Geological Survey ecosystems science strategy—Advancing discovery and application through collaboration.Geological Survey Circular 1383–C.2013，1—43.
[55]Ferrero R.C.,Kolak J.J.,Bills D.J.,et al.U.S.Geological Survey energy and minerals science strategy—A resource lifecycle approach.U.S.Geological Survey Circular 1383–D.2013，1—37.
[56]Bright P.R.,Buxton H.T.,Balistrieri L.S.,et al.U.S.Geological Survey environmental health science strategy—Providing environmental health science for a changing world.U.S.Geological Survey Circular 1383–E.2013，1—43.
[57]Holmes R.R.,Jr.Jones L.M.,Eidenshink J.C.,et al.U.S.Geological Survey natural hazards science strategy— Promoting the safety,security,and economic well-being of the Nation.U.S.Geological Survey Circular 1383–F.2013，1—79.
[58]Bristol R.S.,Euliss N.H.,Jr.Booth N.L.,et al.Geological Survey core science systems strategy—Characterizing,synthesizing,and understanding the critical zone through a modular science framework.U.S.Geological Survey Circular 1383–B.2013，1—33.
[59]Cunningham W.L.,Geiger L.H.,Karavitis G.A.U.S.Geological Survey ground-water climate response network.U.S.Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2007–3003.2007，1—4.
[60]董联党,顾颖,王晓璐.欧盟环境政策体系与其实施机制对中国的借鉴.生态经济.2008，(1): 37～40.
[61]European Commission.Europe 2020: A strategy for smart,sustainable and inclusive growth.COM(2010)2020 final.2010，1—34.
[62]European Commission.Horizon 2020-the framework programme for research and innovation.COM(2011)808 final.2011，1—14.
[63]The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union.2013 Decision No 1386/2013/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 November 2013 on a General Union Environment Action Programme to 2020‘Living well,within the limits of our planet’.Official Journal of the European Union.171—200.
[64]Demicheli L.,Delfini C.,Hunter W.EuroGeoSurveys,the Geological Surveys of Europe.In: Landslide science and practice,Volume 7: social and economic impact and policies.Edited by Margottini C.,Canuti P.,Sassa K.Springer.331—333.
[65]刘凤山,胡道功.欧美国家地质填图的理念、管理与战略.地质通报.2009，28(10): 1405～1410.
[66]Thomsen R.,·S?ndergaard V.H.,·S?rensen K.I.Hydrogeological mapping as a basis for establishing site-specific groundwater protection zones in Denmark.Hydrogeology Journal.2004，12: 550—562.
[67]Commission of the European Communities.Groundwater resources of the European Community: synthetical report.Commission of the European Communities,Directorate-General for the environment,consumer protection and nuclear safety.Th.Sch?fer GmbH,Hannover.1982，1—75.
[68]Cornu J.,Eme D.,Malard F.The distribution of groundwater habitats in Europe.Hydrogeology Journal.2013，21:949—960.
[69]Schulte-Braucks R.Observing the land beyond.International Innovation.April 2013，44—47.
[70]Quevauviller Ph.Groundwater monitoring in the context of EU legislation: reality and integration needs.Journal of Environmental Monitoring.2005，7: 89—102.
[71]Tuinstra J.,van Wensem J.Ecosystem services in sustainable groundwater management.Science of the Total Environment.2014，485–486: 798—803.
[72]Wendland F.,Blum A.,Coetsiers M.,et al.uropean aquifer typology: a practical framework for an overview of major groundwater composition at European scale.Environmental Geology.2008，55: 77—85.
[73]Hahn H.J.,Fuchs A.Distribution patterns of groundwater communities across aquifer types in south-western Germany.Freshwater Biology.2009，54: 848—860.
[74]Griebler C.,Stein H.,Kellermann C.,et al.Ecological assessment of groundwater ecosystems: vision or illusion.Ecological Engineering.2010，36: 1174—1190.
[75]Keuskamp J.A.,van Drecht G.,Bouwman A.F.European-scale modeling of groundwater denitrification and associated N2O production.Environmental Pollution.2012，165: 67—76.
[76]Van Den Eeckhaut M.,Hervás J.State of the art of national landslide databases in Europe and their potential for assessing landslide susceptibility,hazard and risk.Geomorphology.2012，139–140: 545—558.
[77]张志勤.欧盟碳捕获及储存技术研发现状与发展趋势.全球科技经济瞭望.2012，27(10): 5～11.
[78]Thorleifson L.H.,Berg R.C.,Russell H.A.J.Geological mapping goes 3–D in response to societal needs.GSA Today.2010，20(8): 27—29.
[79]British Geological Survey.Gateway to the earth: science for the next decade.Swindon: Polaris House.2014，1—18.

比尔盖茨的英文生平简介

比尔盖茨的英文简历
Bill Gates is the head of the software company Microsoft and one of the world's wealthiest men. Gates and Paul Allen founded Microsoft in the 1970s, though Allen left the company in 1983. Gates oversaw the invention and marketing of the MS-DOS operating system, the Windows operating interface, the Internet Explorer browser, and a multitude of other popular computer products. Along the way he gained a reputation for fierce competitiveness and aggressive business savvy. During the 1990s rising Microsoft stock prices made Gates the world's wealthiest man; his wealth has at times exceeded $75 billion, making Gates a popular symbol of the ascendant computer geek of the late 20th century.
Extra credit: Gates married Melinda French, a Microsoft employee, on 1 January 1994. The couple have three children: daughters Jennifer Katharine (b. 1996) and Phoebe Adele (b. 2002) and son Rory John (b. 1999)... Gates's personal chartiable initiative, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, has focused on global health issues, especially on preventing malaria and AIDS in poor countries; in 2005, ABC News reported that he had given away over six billion dollars in the previous five years.
微软网上的:
William (Bill) H. Gates is chairman of Microsoft Corporation, the worldwide leader in software, services and solutions that help people and businesses realize their full potential.
On June 27, 2008, Gates transitioned out of a day-to-day role in the company to spend more time on his global health and education work at the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. He shares his thoughts about the foundation and other topics on Gates Notes, a Web site launched in January 2010. Gates continues to serve as Microsoft's chairman and as an advisor on key development projects. In June 2006, Ray Ozzie assumed Gates' previous title as chief software architect and oversees technical architecture and product oversight responsibilities at Microsoft. Craig Mundie assumed the new title of chief research and strategy officer at Microsoft and is responsible for the company's research and incubation efforts.
Born on Oct. 28, 1955, Gates grew up in Seattle with his two sisters. Their father, William H. Gates II, is a Seattle attorney. Their late mother, Mary Gates, was a schoolteacher, University of Washington regent, and chairwoman of United Way International.
Gates attended public elementary school and the private Lakeside School. There, he discovered his interest in software and began programming computers at age 13.
In 1973, Gates entered Harvard University as a freshman, where he lived down the hall from Steve Ballmer, now Microsoft's chief executive officer. While at Harvard, Gates developed a version of the programming language BASIC for the first microcomputer - the MITS Altair.
In his junior year, Gates left Harvard to devote his energies to Microsoft, a company he had begun in 1975 with his childhood friend Paul Allen. Guided by a belief that the computer would be a valuable tool on every office desktop and in every home, they began developing software for personal computers. Gates' foresight and his vision for personal computing have been central to the success of Microsoft and the software industry.
Under Gates' leadership, Microsoft's mission has been to continually advance and improve software technology, and to make it easier, more cost-effective and more enjoyable for people to use computers. The company is committed to a long-term view, reflected in its industry-leading investment in research and development each year.
In 1999, Gates wrote "Business @ the Speed of Thought", a book that shows how computer technology can solve business problems in fundamentally new ways. The book was published in 25 languages and is available in more than 60 countries. "Business @ the Speed of Thought" has received wide critical acclaim, and was listed on the best-seller lists of the "New York Times", "USA Today", "The Wall Street Journal" and on Amazon.com. Gates' previous book, "The Road Ahead", published in 1995, was at the top of the "New York Times" bestseller list for seven weeks.
Gates has donated the proceeds of both books to non-profit organizations that support the use of technology in education and skills development.
In addition to his love of computers and software, Gates founded Corbis, which is developing one of the world's largest resources of visual information - a comprehensive digital archive of art and photography from public and private collections around the globe. He is also a member of the board of directors of Berkshire Hathaway Inc., which invests in companies engaged in diverse business activities.
Philanthropy is very important to Gates. He and his wife, Melinda, started a foundation in 2000 to help reduce inequities in the United States and around the world. The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation supports philanthropic initiatives in the areas of global health and learning, with the hope that in the 21st century, advances in these critical areas will be available for all people. To learn more about the foundation, visit www.gatesfoundation.org.
Gates was married on Jan. 1, 1994, to Melinda French Gates. They have three children. Gates is an avid reader, and enjoys playing golf, tennis and bridge.
William Henry Gates Utah (William Henry III Gates III KBE, 1955 on October 28 -), also by bill Gates are world famous, American businessman, billionaires. He is the founder of Microsoft, according to Forbes magazine's statistics, gates is the world's richest man. Another statistic says gates a man's wealth than the world's poorest 50% of the total population of more wealth.
life
Gates was born in America on the west coast of the upper family, a Seattle father is local famous lawyer. Gates is an excellent student, and by extreme individualism is famous, According to one of his classmates in memory, gates has already assert themselves at 25, a billionaire. In the 1970s, but also was at Harvard University's gates and partner Paul Allen (for Allen's sport in) together for 8,800 Altair computer design Altair BASIC interpretation device. Altair is the first commercially successful personal computer, but the BASIC language is an easy-to-use easy-for-all-to-learn computer programming language, gates and Allen developed BASIC version is later Microsoft BASIC, also ms-dos operating system, while the latter is the basis of Microsoft early the key to success. Microsoft Basic later became a Microsoft QuickBasic, and gradually evolved into today still popular Visual Basic.
Youth gates in the early 1970s, gates wrote a famous "to a lover letter", shocked the computer science.personal. Gates indicated the computer software will be a huge commercial market, computer fans should not be gain no consent of the authors be copied computer programs. When the computer science.personal by hackers cultural influences, think originality and knowledge should be Shared. Gates and leave the campus, one organizes the world one of the most successful companies - Microsoft, and gradually will software industrialization.
But gates commercial gimmick often called to criticism, one is the ms-dos source. In the 1970s, IBM is plan enter PC market, and in 1981 officially launched an IBM personal computer (PC). IBM for our products find suitable, based on the Intel x86 series processor operating system. IBM in with another company brief after negotiations found Microsoft. Microsoft is also before they tell the oneself are negotiating with IBM found Seattle computer company, with allegedly is $50,000 price to the company to purchase their development of the operating system (Microsoft's supporters say, when Microsoft and IBM have agreement provisions, Microsoft must not reveal to the outside negotiation matters). Microsoft again after using this authorization IBM operating system (has been renamed the PC - DOS). Microsoft also with other computer manufacturers negotiations, will pass the change after the ms-dos system installation to each a new computer. Afterwards the Seattle against Microsoft computer without informing the facts of the case with extremely low price to buy this company product, but the two sides finally reached an out-of-court settlement. Gates' reputation because of the late 1990s by the U.S. government series against Microsoft antitrust case again without damage.
Since the mid 1980's gates on CD as the data storage media, so the optimistic positive promotion cd-rom.
Gates has also been accused of commercial bad conduct. Gates repeatedly accused under his leadership, Microsoft's many commercial behavior violates the laws.
In 2000, gates appointed him long-term good friend Steve Ballmer (Steve Ballmer) for Microsoft Chief executive, and oneself is the Chief Software Architect "(Chief Software miller knows not).
In private, gates on January 1, 1994 and Linda flange strange (Linda French) to get married. They had three children: Jane Buddha · Catherine gates (1996), rory John gates (1999) and phoebe · Adele gates (2002).
Mrs Gates and charity organization together founded the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (Bill Gates Foundation and challenge. Critics argue that the establishment of the foundation of the public is negative criticism Microsoft monopoly response. But we also should notice, no matter why motivation, the foundation for the poor students to provide scholarship, AIDS prevention and has made great contributions.
Britain's foreign ministry announced in 2004, Bill Gates will be queen's for conferring the British empire jenn-air level) (KBE) commander in the United Kingdom, in recognition of enterprise development, employment, education and voluntary career aspects of the crackajack contribution. The empress can KBE was awarded the honorary title of highest foreign citizens.
Property value appraisal
According to Forbes magazine of the world's billionaires, gates' wealth is as follows:
In 1996 - $18.5 billion, ranking first
1997-364 billion, ranking second
1998-510 million usd, ranking first
In 1999-900 billion, ranking first
2000 - $60 billion, ranking first
In 2001-5.87 million us dollars, first
2002-528 million us dollars, first
2003-407 billion, ranking first
Winning/the honour record
By the guardian rated 2001 the press's most influential 100 people
By the British Sunday times newspaper named 1999 most power one of the person
In 1999 the Upside of 100 elite second place
The magazine 1998 50 network elite in first
The sports news, 1997, sports 100 of the most powerful character
The chief executive officer magazine in 1994 annual CEO
Insects scientists will also be a flower worms to his name for gates's Ya flies
The 2004 for the British queen conferring the jazz.

求下面几个人生平，在社会保障贡献方面的英文资料

1 Becker, Gary
生平：
Gary Stanley Becker (born December 2, 1930) is an American economist and a Nobel laureate. Born in Pottsville, Pennsylvania, Becker earned a B.A. at Princeton University in 1951 and a Ph.D. at the University of Chicago in 1955. He taught at Columbia University from 1957 to 1968, and then returned to Chicago, where he holds joint appointments with the department of economics and sociology and the graduate school of business. Becker won the John Bates Clark Medal in 1967, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1992, and received the United States' Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2007.[1]
Becker was one of the first economists to branch into what were traditionally considered topics belonging to sociology, including racial discrimination, crime, family organization, and drug addiction (Cf. Freakonomics and Rational addiction). He is known for arguing that many different types of human behavior can be seen as rational and utility maximizing. His approach can include altruistic behavior by defining individuals' utility appropriately. He is also among the foremost exponents of the study of human capital. Becker is also credited with the "rotten kid theorem". He is married to Guity Nashat, an historian of the Middle East whose research interests overlap his own.
贡献：
According to the Nobel Prize citation, his work can be categorized into four areas:
investments in human capital
behavior of the family (or household), including distribution of work and allocation of time in the family
crime and punishment
discrimination on the markets for labor and goods.
Becker’s Nobel lecture, "Nobel Lecture: The Economic Way of Looking at Behavior", subsequently published in the Journal of Political Economy, reviews his four key areas of research. He explains that his framework of analysis is not a traditional self-interested motivation but rather an analysis based on a set of assumptions and individual preferences. Yes, agents are maximizing welfare but it is based on individual conception constrained by income, time, and imperfect memory and calculation capabilities. Much of his research focuses on the impact of the rising value of time as a result of economic growth.
Becker also received the National Medal of Science in 2000. He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President George W. Bush in November 2007.
Usually considered politically conservative, he wrote a monthly column for Business Week from 1985 to 2004, alternating with liberal Princeton economist Alan Blinder. In December 2004, Becker started a joint weblog with Judge Richard Posner entitled The Becker-Posner Blog.
[edit] Discrimination
Becker often includes a variable of taste for discrimination in explaining behavior. He believes that people often mentally increase the cost of a transaction if it is with a minority they discriminate against. His theory held that competition decreases discrimination. If firms were able to specialize in employing mainly minorities and offer better product or service, such a firm could bypass discrepancy in wages etc. between equally productive blacks and whites or females and males.
Becker’s research found that when minorities are a very small percentage the cost of discrimination mainly falls on the minorities. However, when minorities represent a larger percentage of society then the cost of discrimination falls on both the minorities and the majority. He also pioneered research on the impact of self-fulfilling prophecies of teachers and employers on minorities. Such attitudes often lead to less investment in productive skills and education of minorities.[citation needed]
[edit] Crime and punishment
Becker’s interest in criminology arose when he was rushed for time one day. He had to weigh the cost and benefits of legally parking in an inconvenient garage versus in an illegal but convenient spot. After roughly calculating the probability of getting caught and potential punishment, Becker rationally opted for the crime. Becker surmised that other criminals make such rational decisions. However, such a premise went against conventional thought that crime was a result of mental illness and social oppression.
While Becker acknowledged that many people operate under a high moral and ethical constraint, criminals rationally see that the benefits of their crime outweigh the cost such as the probability of apprehension, conviction, punishment, as well as their current set of opportunities. From the public policy perspective, since the cost of increasing the fine is marginal to that of the cost of increasing surveillance, one can conclude that the best policy is to maximize the fine and minimize surveillance. However, this conclusion has limits, not the least of which include ethical considerations.
One of the main differences between this theory and Jeremy Bentham's rational choice theory, which had been abandoned in criminology, is that if Bentham considered it possible to completely annihilate crime (through the panopticon), Becker's theory acknowledged that a society could not eradicate crime beneath a certain level. For example, if 25% of a supermarket's products were stolen, it would be very easy to reduce this rate to 15%, quite easy to reduce it until 5%, difficult to reduce it under 3% and nearly impossible to reduce it to zero (a feat which would cost the supermarket, in surveillance, etc., that it would outweigh the benefits).
[edit] Human capital
Becker’s research was fundamental in arguing for the augmentability of human capital. When his research was first introduced it was considered very controversial as some considered it debasing. However, he was able to convince many that individuals make choices of investing in human capital based on rational benefits and cost that include a return on investment as well as a cultural aspect.
His research included the impact of positive and negative habits such as punctuality and alcoholism on human capital. He explored the different rates of return for different people and the resulting macroeconomic implications. He also distinguished between general to specific education and their influence on job-lock and promotions.
[edit] Families
Becker’s research on human social interactions has had many implications for the family such as for the marriage market, divorce, fertility, and social security. Becker argued that such decisions are made in a marginal-cost and marginal-benefit framework. For example, he concluded that wealthier couples have higher cost to divorce and thus a lower divorce rate.
A major focus of Becker’s research was the impact of higher real wages in increasing the value of time and therefore the cost of home production such as childrearing. As women increase investment in human capital and enter the work force the opportunity cost of childcare rises. Additionally, the increased rate of return to education raises the desire to provide children with formal and costly education. Coupled together, the impact is to lower fertility rates.
A more controversial issue was Becker’s conclusion that parents often act altruistically towards selfish children by highly investing in a child in an effort to indirectly save for old age. Becker believed that the rate of return from investing in children was often greater than normal retirement savings. However, parents can not know for sure that the child will take care of them. Since they cannot legally bind a child to care for them they often resort to manipulation through instilling a sense of “guilt, obligation, duty and filial love that indirectly, but still very effectively... commits children to helping them out.” Becker even went so far as to say that social security can cause families to be less interdependent by removing the motivation of parents to use altruistic behaviors in motivating their children to care for them.
Gary also has a family of his own. He is related, via his sister (the eminent psychoanalyst-artist Natalie Becker), to Swarthmore College RA and Modernist Scholar-in-Training (SIT) Liana Katz, Esq.
[edit] Organ Markets
An article by Gary Becker and Julio Elias on "Introducing Incentives in the market for Live and Cadaveric Organ Donations"[1] said that a free market could help solve the problem of a scarcity in organ transplants. Their economic modelling was able to estimate the price tag for human kidneys ($15,000) and human livers ($32,000). It is argued by critics[2], that this particular market would exploitat the underprivileged donors from the developing world. This view was endorsed by the National Kidney Foundation in a testimony to the US Congress where Dr Francis Delmonico argued that "...a US congressional endorsement for payment would propel other countries to sanction unethical and unjust standards...".
[edit] Politics
Recent photograph taken in Chicago on May 24, 2008Becker is also famous for his economic analysis of democracy. He asked what determines the extent to which an interest group can exploit another. The basis of his analysis was the concept of deadweight loss. A thief damages his victim by stealing money and by forcing the victim to dash about replacing credit and identity cards. More technically the interest group harms its victim by taking money and by imposing deadweight losses. Becker’s insight was to recognize that deadweight losses put an exponential break on predation. He took the well-known insight that deadweight losses are proportional to the square of the tax, and used it to argue that a linear increase in takings by a predatory interest group will provoke a non-linear increase in the deadweight losses its victim suffers. These rapidly increasing losses will prod victims to invest equivalent sums in resisting attempts on their wealth. The advance of predators, fueled by linear incentives slows before the stiffening resistance of prey outraged by non-linear damages. Becker’s model has been seen by some as implying that politics are efficient because deadweight losses are a break to predation. This conclusion has weight if we hold constant all other forces that influence political outcomes and the conclusion fits neatly into the hypothesis that virulent predators evolve into benign symbiotes, but the conclusion comes from a partial reading of Becker’s model. The outcome of a contest between interest groups depends also on combatant’s political savvy. Groups with the gift of intrigue, or with more guns, can laugh at deadweight losses and impose their will for generations, as the sad example of African dictatorships shows. Becker’s analysis is so general that its hull can fit around just about any sort of relation between interest groups. The model applies as well to dictatorships as it does to democracies. What is remarkable is that what some may see as a Dr. Seuss version of political modeling can make powerful testable predictions about interest groups.
He is also noted for his advocacy of immigration tariffs.
[edit] Publications
Gary S. Becker (1957, 1971, 2nd ed.). The Economics of Discrimination. Chicago, University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-04115-8. UCP descr
Gary S. Becker (1964, 1993, 3rd ed.). Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education.. Chicago, University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-04120-9. (UCP descr)
Gary S. Becker (1965) “A Theory of the Allocation of Time,”] Economic Journal 75 (299), pp. 493-517.
Gary Becker (1968). "Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach". The Journal of Political Economy 76: pp. 169–217.
Gary Becker and H. Gregg Lewis (1973). "On the Interaction between the Quantity and Quality of Children". The Journal of Political Economy 81: pp. S279–S288.
Gary S. Becker and Gilbert Ghez (1975). The Allocation of Time and Goods Over the Life Cycle. New York, Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-87014-514-2.
Gary S. Becker (1976). The Economic Approach to Human Behavior. Links to chapter previews. University of Chicago Press.
Gary Becker and George J. Stigler (1977). "De Gustibus Non Est Disputandum". The American Economic Review 67(2): pp. 76–90 (different pagination).
Gary Becker (1983). "A Theory of Competition among Pressure Groups for Political Influence". The Quarterly Journal of Economics 98: 371-400.
Gary Becker and Kevin M. Murphy (1988). "A Theory of Rational Addiction". The Journal of Political Economy 96: p. 675-700.
Gary S. Becker (1991). A Treatise on the Family, Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-90698-5
Gary S. Becker (1992). "The Economic Way of Looking at Life" (Nobel Prize Lecture).
Gary S. Becker, (1996), Accounting for Tastes, Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-54356-4
Gary S. Becker and Kevin M. Murphy, (2001), Social Economics: Market Behavior in a Social Environment,Harvard University Press
2 Becker, S.
生平与贡献：
Howard Becker was born in 1928 in Chicago. As an undergraduate and later a graduate student at the University of Chicago, he worked as a professional jazz pianist. His professor, Everett C. Hughes, whose primary interest was the sociology of work and professions, was an important influence on Becker. It was Hughes, Becker reports, who first encouraged him to undertake the study of jazz musicians as a professional group. This research led Becker to write extensively about drug use, and he put off publishing it for over a decade until 1963, when the political climate in the United States had improved. The resulting book, "Outsiders" was a critical work in the sociology of deviance and laid the foundation of labeling theory.
For his doctoral dissertation, Becker studied Chicago schoolteachers. Generally speaking, his work reflects the prevailing thematic and theoretical preoccupations of Chicago sociology at that time, with its attention to symbolic interactions involving race, status, and power in the urban meltingpot. Erving Goffman was a contemporary of Becker's at Chicago, and their research interests and writing styles both reflect a similar formative milieu.
Becker received his Ph.D. in Sociology from the University of Chicago in 1951, and went on to teach in Sociology Departments at Northwestern University, the University of Washington, and the University of California at Santa Barbara. However, the majority of his research, writing and teaching was in other fields of sociology, including but not limited to the sociology of art, qualitative method, visual sociology and the practice of research and writing (composition theory) in social sciences.
He is known for the clarity of his prose, and is a staunch advocate of what has been termed the "Plain style" of writing (see, for example, The Elements of Style). His stylistic predilections betray his academic pedigree: at the time he was a student, sociologists at the University of Chicago embraced European positivism and Midwestern pragmatism. They sought to communicate their ideas with scientific precision, on the one hand, while making them accessible to politicians and planners, on the other. Becker's book Writing for Social Scientists: How to Start and Finish Your Thesis, Book, or Article is considered to be one of the best books advising all academics how to write, and reflects the conviction that clear prose and clear thinking are inseparable. He served on the advisory board for the 15th edition of the Chicago Manual of Style.
Becker is notable for coing the phrase "hierarchy of credibility (in ‘Whose Side Are We On?’, Social Problems, 1967.)" The Hierarchy of credibility is a concept according purportedly objective judjements of fact and evidence are necessarily tilted in favor of those at the top of a society because they will have had more resources to produce seemingly objective evidence that tends to favor the privileges they enjoy. Becker argues that it is the scholar's responsibility to create evidence that supports the claims of society's least privileged.
While he lives in San Francisco, Becker regularly sojourns in France, previously in the company of Alain Pessin, a sociologist at the University of Grenoble who wrote a book on Becker titled Un sociologue en liberté. Lecture de Howard S. Becker (A sociologist in liberty; a reading of Howard S. Becker). Pessin died in 2005.

吕永龙的代表论著

1) Yonglong Lu*, Nebojsa Nakicenovic,Martin Visbeck, Anne-Sophie Stevance, 2015. Five priorities for the UN Sustainable Development Goals, Nature, 520:432-433. 2) Yonglong Lu *, Alan Jenkins*, Robert C. Ferrier, Mark Bailey, Iain J. Gordon, Shuai Song, Jikun Huang, Shaofeng Jia, Fusuo Zhang, Xuejun Liu, Zhaozhong Fenga, Zhibin Zhang, 2015. Addressing China’s Grand Challenge of Achieving Food Security Whilst Ensuring Environmental Sustainability, Science Advances. 1, e1400039.3) Yonglong Lu *, Ruoshi Wang, Yueqing Zhang, Hongqiao Su, Pei Wang , Alan Jenkins, Rober C. Ferrier, Mark Bailey, Geoff Squire, 2015. Ecosystem health towards sustainability, Ecosystem Health and Sustainability, Volume 1(1)- Article 2:1-15.4) Yonglong Lu, David Inouye, Shirong Liu, 2015. A new platform for ecologists to link ecology with policy, Ecosystem Health and Sustainability, Volume 1(1)-Article 1:1-2.5) Yonglong Lu*, Shuai Song, Ruoshi Wang, Zhaoyang Liu, Jing Meng, Andrew J. Sweetman, Alan Jenkins, Robert C. Ferrier, Hong Li , Wei Luo, Tieyu Wang, 2015. Impacts of Soil and Water Pollution on Food Safety and Health Risks in China, Environment International, 77 : 5–15.6) Tieyu Wang, Pei Wang, Jing Meng, Shijie Liu, Yonglong Lu*, Jong Seong Khim, John P. Giesy, 2015. A review of sources, multimedia distribution and health risks of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in China, Chemosphere 129: 87–997) Yan Feng, Arthur P. J. Mol*, Yonglong Lu*, Guizhen He, C.S.A. (Kris) van Koppen, 2014. Environmental Pollution Liability Insurance in China: Compulsory or Voluntary? Journal of Cleaner Production, 70: 211-219.8) Pei Wang, Yonglong Lu*, Tieyu Wang, Yaning Fu, Zhaoyun Zhu, Shijie Liu, Shuangwei Xie, Yang Xiao, John P. Giesy, 2014. Occurrence and transport of 17 perfluoroalkl acids in 12 coastal rivers in south Bohai coastal region of China with concentrated fluoropolymer facilities, Environmental Pollution, 190:115-122.9) Yaning Fu, Tieyu Wang, Pei Wang, Quanliang Fu, Yonglong Lu*, 2014. Effects of age, gender and region on serum concentrations of Perfluorinated compounds in general population of Henan, China, Chemosphere, 110: 104-110.10) Yan Feng, Arthur P. J. Mol, Yonglong Lu, Guizhen He, C. S. A. van Koppen, 2014. Environmental Pollution Liability Insurance in China: In Need of Strong Government Backing, AMBIO, 43(5):687-702.11) Shijie Liu, Yonglong Lu*, Tieyu Wang, Shuangwei Xie, Kevin C. Jones, Andrew J. Sweetman, 2014. Using gridded multimedia model to simulate spatial fate of Benzo[α]pyrene on regional scale, Environment International, 63C: 53-63.12) Guizhen He, Lei Zhang, Arthur P.J. Mol, Tieyu Wang, Yonglong Lu*, 2014. Why small and medium chemical companies continue to pose severe environmental risks in rural China, Environmental Pollution, 185C:158-167.13) Guizhen He, Lei Zhang, Author Mol, Yonglong Lu*, Jianguo Liu, 2013. Revising China's Environmental Law, Science, 341:133.14) Shuangwei Xie, Yonglong Lu*, Tieyu Wang, Shijie Liu, Kevin Jones, Andy Sweetman, 2013. Estimation of PFOS emission from domestic sources in the eastern coastal region of China, Environment International, 59: 336-343.15) Shuangwei Xie, Tieyu Wang*, Shijie Liu, Kevin C. Jones, Andrew J. Sweetman, Yonglong Lu*, 2013. Industrial source identification and emission estimation of perfluorooctane sulfonate in China, Environmental International, 52:1-8.16) Kun Ni, Yonglong Lu*, Tieyu Wang, Yajuan Shi, Kurunthachalam Kannan, Li Xu, Qiushuang Li, Shijie Liu, 2013. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in China: Policies and recommendations for sound management of plastics from electronic wastes, Journal of Environmental Management, 115:114-123.17) Kun Ni, Yonglong Lu*, Tieyu Wang, Kurunthachalam Kannan, Jorrit Gosens, Li Xu, Qiushuang Li, Lin Wang, Shijie Liu, 2013. A review of human exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in China, International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 216(6):607-623.18) Li Xu, Tieyu Wang*, Kun Ni, Shijie Liu, Pei Wang, Shuangwei Xie, Jing Meng, Xiaoqi Zheng, Yonglong Lu*, 2013. Metals contamination along the watershed and estuarine areas of southern Bohai Sea, China, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 74(1):453-463.19) Li Li, Yonglong Lu*,Yajuan Shi, Tieyu Wang, Wei Luo, Jorrit Gosens, Peng Chen, Haiqian Li, 2013. Integrated technology selection for energy conservation and PAHs control in iron and steel industry: Methodology and case study, Energy Policy, 54(c):194-203.20) Jorrit Gosens, Yonglong Lu*, Guizhen He, Bettina Bluemling, Theo A.M. Beckers, 2013. Sustainability effects of household-scale biogas in rural China, Energy Policy, 54(c):273-287.21) Jorrit Gosens, Yonglong Lu*, 2013. From Lagging to Leading? Technologies Innovation Systems in Economies and the Case of Chinese Wind Power, Energy Policy, 60(c):234-250.22) Yonglong Lu, Jianji An, Haihua Gong (Eds), 2012. Science in the Chinese Academy of Sciences, A Sponsored Supplement to Science.23) Guizhen He, Arthur P.J. Mol, Yonglong Lu*, 2012. Trust and Credibility in Governing China’s Risk Society, Environmental Science and Technology, 46(14): 7442-7443.24) Tieyu Wang, Jong Seong Khim, Chunli Chen, Jonathan E Naile, Yonglong Lu*, Kurunthachalam Kannan, JinSoon Park, Wei Luo, Wentao Jiao, Wenyou Hu, John P. Giesy, 2012. Perfluorinated Compounds in Surface Waters from Northern China: Comparison to Level of Industrialization, Environment International, 42: 37-46.25) Wei Luo, Tieyu Wang, Wentao Jiao, Wenyou Hu, Jonathan E Naile, Jong Seong Khim, John P. Giesy, Yonglong Lu*, 2012. Mercury in coastal watersheds along the Chinese Northern Bohai and Yellow Seas, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 215-216: 199-207.26) Guizhen He, Yonglong Lu*, Arthur P.J. Mol, Theo Beckers, 2012. Changes and challenges: China's environmental management in transition, Environmental Development, 3: 25-38.27) Guizhen He, Lei Zhang, Yonglong Lu*, A. P. Mol, 2011. Managing major chemical accidents in China: towards effective risk information, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 187(1-3):171-181.28) Chunli Chen, Tieyu Wang, Jonathan E Naile, Jing Li, Jing Geng, Cencen Bi, Wenyou Hu, Xiang Zhang, Jong Seong Khim, Yan Feng, John P. Giesy, Yonglong Lu*, 2011. Perfluorinated compounds in aquatic products from Bohai Bay, Tianjin, China, Journal of Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 17(6):1279-1291.29) Tieyu Wang, Yonglong Lu*, Chunli Chen, Jonathan E Naile, Jong Seong Khim, Jin Soon Park, Wei Luo, Wentao Jiao, Wenyou Hu, John P. Giesy, 2011. Perfluorinated compounds in estuarine and coastal areas of north Bohai Sea, China, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 62(8):1905-1914.30) Guang Wang, Yonglong Lu*, Jingyi Han, Wei Luo, Yajuan Shi, Tieyu Wang, Yamei Sun, 2010. Hexachlorobenzene sources, levels and human exposure in the environment of China, Environment International, 36(1): 122-130.31) Wei Luo, Yonglong Lu*, Tieyu Wang, Wenyou Hu, Wentao Jiao, Jonathan E. Naile, Jong Seong Khim, John P. Giesy, 2010. Ecological risk assessment of arsenic and metals in sediments of coastal areas of northern Bohai and Yellow Seas, China, AMBIO, 39(5):367-375.32) Wei Luo, Yonglong Lu*, Yan Zhang, Wenyou Fu, Bin Wang, Wentao Jiao, Guang Wang, Xiaojuan Tong, John P. Giesy, 2010. Watershed-scale assessment of arsenic and metal contamination in the surface soils surrounding Miyun Reservoir, Beijing, China, Journal of Environmental Management, 91(12): 2599-2607.33) Jing Li, Yonglong Lu*, Guang Wang, Wentao Jiao, Chunli Chen, Tieyu Wang, Wei Luo, John P. Giesy, 2010. Evaluation and Spatial Diffusion of Health Risk of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in Soils Surrounding Chemical Industrial Parks in China, Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 16(5):989-1006.34) Jingyi Han, Arthur P.J. Mol, Yonglong Lu*, 2010. Solar Water Heaters in China: a new day dawning, Energy Policy, 38(1): 383-391.35) Jing Geng, Yonglong Lu*, Tieyu Wang, John P. Giesy, Chunli Chen, 2010. Effects of energy conservation in major energy-intensive industrial sectors on emissions of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans in China, Energy Policy, 38(5): 2346-2356.36) Yonglong Lu, Guizhen He, 2009. Contemporary Environmental Management, Beijing: China Renmin University Press.37) Guizhen He, Lei Zhang, Yonglong Lu*, 2009. Environmental Impact Assessment and Environmental Audit in Large-scale Public Infrastructure Construction: The Case of Qinghai-Tibet Railway, Environmental Management, 44(3):579-589.38) Jingyi Han, Arthur P.J. Mol, Yonglong Lu*, Lei Zhang, 2009. Onshore wind power development in China: Challenges behind a successful story, Energy Policy, 37(8): 2941-2951.39) Guang Wang, Yonglong Lu*, Tieyu Wang, Xiang Zhang, Jingyi Han, Wei Luo, Yajuan Shi, Jing Li, Wentao Jiao, 2009. Factors Influencing the Spatial Distribution of Organochlorine Pesticides in Soils surrounding Chemical Industrial Parks, Journal of Environmental Quality, 38(1): 180-187.40) Jingyi Han, Yonglong Lu*, A. Mol, Lei Zhang, 2008. Small-Scale Bioenergy Projects in Rural China: Lessons to be Learnt, Energy Policy, 36(6): 2154-2162.41) Wei Luo, Yonglong Lu*, Guang Wang, Yajuan Shi, Tieyu Wang, John P. Giesy, 2008. Distribution and availability of arsenic in soils from the industrialized urban area of Beijing, China, Chemosphere, 72(5): 797-802.42) Yonglong Lu, John Giesy, Laura Holliday, 2007. Implementing the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press.43) Xiaolong Wang, Yonglong Lu*, Guizhen He, Jingyi Han, Tieyu Wang, 2007. Multivariate Analysis of Interactions between Phytoplankton Biomass and Environmental Variables in Taihu Lake, China, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 133(1-3):243-253.44) Xiaolong Wang, Yonglong Lu*, Jingyi Han, Guizhen He, Tieyu Wang, 2007. Identification of Anthropogenic Influences on Water Quality of Rivers in Taihu Watershed, Journal of Environmental Sciences, 19(4): 475-481.45) Wei Luo, Tieyu Wang, Yonglong Lu*, John P. Giesy, Yajuan Shi, Yuanming Zheng, Ying Xing, Guanghong Wu, 2007. Landscape Ecology of the Guanting Reservoir, Beijing, China: Multivariate and Geostatistical Analyses of Metals in Soils, Environmental Pollution, 146(2): 567-576.46) Hong Zhang, Yonglong Lu*, 2007. End-Users’ Knowledge, Attitude, and Behavior towards Safe Use of Pesticides: A Case Study in the Guanting Reservoir Area, China. Environmental Geochemical Health, 29(6): 513-520.47) Yonglong Lu, John P. Giesy, 2005. Science-based decision-making to reduce risks from Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), Chemosphere, 60(6): 729-730.48) Hong Zhang, Yonglong Lu*, Yajuan Shi, Tieyu Wang, Ying Xing, Richard W. Dawson, 2005. Legal Framework related to Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) Management in China, Environmental Science and Policy, 8(2):153-160.49) Hong Zhang, Yonglong Lu*, R.W. Dawson, Yajuan Shi, Tieyu Wang, 2005. Classification and Ordination of DDT and HCH in soil samples in Guanting Reservoir areas, Chemosphere, 60 (6): 762-769.50) Ying Xing, Yonglong Lu*, Richard W. Dawson, Yajuan Shi, Hong Zhang, Tieyu Wang, Wenbin Liu, Hongchang Ren, 2005. A Spatial Temporal Assessment of Pollution from PCBs in China, Chemosphere, 60 (6):731-739.51) Tieyu Wang, Yonglong Lu*, Hong Zhang, Yajuan Shi, 2005. Contamination of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and Relevant Management in China, Environment International, 31(6):813-821.52) Guilian Wang, Yonglong Lu, Jian Xu, 2000. Application of GIS in Environmental Management and Emergency Response, Journal of Environmental Sciences, 12(2):172-177.53) Yonglong Lu, Yaoguang Zong, 1996. Ecological planning of land use: The central area of Tianjin, China, Ambio, 25 (6): 421-424.54) Yonglong Lu, 1996. Eco-tourism industry development - an alternative to sustainable use of landscape resources, Journal of Environmental Sciences, 8 (3): 298-307.55) Yonglong Lu (Editor-in-chief), 1996. Environmental Management (Vol.1): Compartmental Approach, Beijing: China Environmental Science Press.56) Yonglong Lu (Editor-in-chief), 1996. Environmental Management (Vol.2): Ecosystem Approach, Beijing: China Environmental Science Press.57) Yonglong Lu (Editor-in-chief), 1996. Environmental Management (Vol.3): Tools for Sustainable Development, Beijing: China Environmental Science Press.58) Yonglong Lu, 1995. Urbanization, Environmental Consequences and Management in China, Journal of Environmental Sciences, 7(1):1-11.59) Rusong Wang, Yonglong Lu, 1994. Urban Ecological Development: Research and Application, Beijing: China Environmental Science Press.60) Yonglong Lu, Bangjie Yang, Rusong Wang, 1992. An Interactive Simulation Model of Urban Ecosystem and Its Implementation, Journal of Environmental Sciences, 4(1):15-22.